Yamaha AW2816 User manual
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AW2816 Recording 101 - Table of Contents
Introduction 1
AW2816 Overview 1
Purpose of this Guide 1
Getting Started 2
The Musician 2
The Instruments 2
Acoustics 2
The Performance 3
Microphones 3
Dynamic Microphones 4
Condenser Microphones 4
Ribbon Microphones 5
Tube Microphones 6
Microphone Selection & Placement 6
Cables 9
Unbalanced 9
Balanced 10
Connectors 10
XLR 10
1/4 inch Balanced (TRS) 11
1/4 inch Unbalanced (Phone) 11
RCA 11
The Mixing Console 12
Split and In-line Console 11
Mixing Layers 12
Channel Strip Overview 14
Phantom Power 15
Microphone Pre-amp 15
Peak Meter 15
Phase Reversal 15
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Dynamic Processors 16
Equalizer 17
Auxiliary Sends 19
Bus Sends 19
Direct Out 20
Stereo Bus Assign 21
Pan Pot 21
Fader 21
Fader Group 22
Mute 22
Mute Group 22
Channel Pairing 22
Multi-Track Recorders 22
Analog Multi-Track Recorders 23
Digital Multi-Track Recorders 23
2-Track Recorders 24
Conclusion 25
Step-by-Step Procedures
Recalling Scene 00 26
Saving Mixer Settings as a Scene 27
Routing an Input to a Track Using a Bus 28
Routing a Monitor Channel to an Internal Effects Processors 29
Routing an Input Channel to the Internal Effects Processors 30
Bouncing Tracks 30
1
Introduction
Congratulations on your purchase of the AW2816!
The Yamaha AW2816 Professional Audio Workstation will make it possible for you to record,
edit, mix, and master to a CD without the need for any external equipment other than your
microphones and/or line sources and a monitor system - headphones, of course, might be helpful
in some situations. The AW2816 is also expandable via optional I/O interface cards that provide
direct connectivity with all types of digital and analog gear.
The following is an brief overview of what the AW2816 can do:
!16-Track Hard Disk Recorder – The AW2816 records onto an internal hard drive.
Sixteen separate recording tracks for recording allow you to record each instrument to
its own track and then mix all of them together later on.
!28-Channel Mixing Console – As a 28-channel mixing console, the AW2816 makes
it possible to combine audio signals and route them to a set of outputs.
!Built in CD-RW – The internal CD-RW drive can be used to make audio CDs of
your songs, or to store song data.
The Purpose of this Guide
Unless you have had past recording experiences with a multi-track recorder or have used a
digital mixer, the AW2816 may seem very complex. There are no instant shortcuts to learn how
to use the AW2816 proficiently. It will take time and energy but in the end the satisfaction that
is achieved when you are able to record your own music from start to finish will make it worth
the effort.
This guide, therefore, is written with the recording novice in mind. It is also designed to cover
basic recording principles and how they relate to the AW2816. If you already know what a bus is
and how to route an input to a track then this may not be for you. If, however, you have never
recorded before or need a little help getting started, then this guide may help to provide a
foundation from which you can continue to expand your learning and knowledge of the AW2816
and the world of digital recording. This guide can also be used as a supplement to the
AW2816’s Operation Guide.
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Getting Started
The first thing that should be done is to get a clear idea of the process involved in creating an
audio CD. The following illustration is a general outline of the process involved:
Multi-Track Recorder
Musician/Instrument Microphone Mixing Console CD Recorder CD
It all starts with the musician. As the musician performs acoustic sound waves will be created.
A microphone is then used to capture the acoustic sound waves and convert them into an
electrical signal. This electrical signal is then sent to the mixing console by connecting the
microphone to the mixing console with a cable. At the mixing console the electrical signal is
boosted by a microphone pre-amp and, if desired, modified using equalizers or dynamic
processors. This signal is then sent to a multi-track recorder where it is recorded onto one of the
tracks. The track is then sent back to the mixing console where it is mixed together with other
tracks and input signals to create a stereo mix of all of the signals. This stereo mix is then sent to
a stereo recorder such as a CD recorder. The musical performance is recorded onto the CD in a
format that can be played on any CD player.
The AW2816 is a mixing console, multi-track recorder, and CD recorder all in one unit. The
only other things needed to capture the musical performance and record it onto a CD are the
cables and the microphones.
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The Musician
The Instruments
All good recordings start at the source so it is very important that the musical instruments used in
the recording are in tune and that you have the best possible quality of sound. If necessary, put
new strings on the guitars, new heads on the drums, etc. before recording a performance.
Acoustics
The acoustical environment will also play a very large role in getting a quality recording. Record
a performance in a room that does not have serious acoustical problems such as standing waves,
or multiple reflections. If the room sounds bad it is going to be very difficult to get a good
recording. A little bit of acoustic foam or sound insulation in the recording room will do
wonders for the sound. There are many informative books available at local music stores that
cover the acoustical treatment of the studio in much greater detail.
The Performance
It is also important to record a quality performance. No amount of equalizing, or processing, can
appreciably improve a bad performance. If it is not a good performance or it is not recorded
properly it will be very difficult to fix later on. Musicians should be well rehearsed and prepared
to perform at their best.
Microphones
A microphone is a type of transducer – a device that converts one form of energy into another.
There are many types of transducers that are used to convert acoustic energy to electrical energy
(microphones) and then back into acoustic energy (speakers). A microphone is used to record
any instrument that does not have an internal pickup or does not output an electrical signal.
Electric guitars and basses have pickups, also a type of transducer, that convert acoustical signals
into to electrical signals. This makes it possible to plug the electric guitar or bass directly into a
mixing console without a microphone. For acoustic reasons, though, it may be more desirable to
plug the electric guitar or bass into an amplifier and then use a microphone to pickup the
acoustical signal from the amplifier. Keyboards, sound modules, and drum machines output an
electrical signal and so they are usually connected directly to the mixing console.
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Three common microphone types are dynamic, condenser, and ribbon. Each type has different
characteristics and as a result will be used for different applications.
Dynamic Microphones
The most common type of microphone is the dynamic microphone. This microphone is made up
of a flexibly mounted diaphragm that is coupled to a coil of fine wire. The coil is mounted in the
air gap of a magnet so that it is free to move back and forth within the gap. When sound waves
strike the diaphragm, the diaphragm will vibrate. As the diaphragm vibrates it will in turn cause
the coil to move back and forth in the field of the magnet. As the coil cuts through the lines of
magnetic force in the gap, a small electrical current is induced in the wire, which is an electrical
representation of the sound wave.
Construction of a Dynamic Microphone
Dynamic microphones are highly dependable, can handle high sound pressure levels, and are
very rugged. For these reasons they are usually used on drums and guitar amps.
Condenser Microphones
Next to the dynamic microphone, the most common microphone type is the condenser. Recent
advances in technology have brought the prices of condenser microphones down considerably.
As a result they are becoming even more common in home studios and project studios.
In a condenser microphone, a gold-coated plastic diaphragm is mounted above a conductive back
plate. The diaphragm and back plate, separated by a small volume of air, form an electrical
component called a capacitor (or condenser). A voltage between 9 and 48 volts is applied to the
diaphragm by an external power supply, charging it with a fixed, static voltage. This is also
commonly referred to as Phantom Power. As the diaphragm vibrates in response to the sound
waves an electrical charge is induced that is an electrical representation of the acoustic sound
wave.
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Construction of a Condenser Microphone
On the AW2816, XLR Inputs 1 and 2 can supply phantom power to a condenser microphone.
Inputs 3-8 are not capable of this. If a condenser microphone is to be connected to inputs 3-8 an
external phantom power supply should be used. The ‘PHANTOM’ [ON/OFF] power switch on
the AW2816 should only be turned on when a microphone that requires phantom power is
connected to input 1 or 2. Caution is required when using phantom power on the AW2816 as it
is possible to damage older ribbon microphones and equipment with unbalanced outputs if they
are connected to input 1 or 2 with the phantom power switch turned to ON.
Condenser microphones generally have very good sonic quality and are used in a wide range of
applications. For vocals, a condenser microphone with a large diaphragm would be a good
choice. For acoustic instruments such as acoustic guitar a small diaphragm condenser
microphone is often used.
Ribbon Microphones
Ribbon microphones are similar to dynamic microphones in design. A ribbon microphone has a
very light, thin, corrugated metal ribbon stretched within the air gap of a powerful magnet. The
ribbon is clamped at the ends, but is still free to move within the air gap. As sound waves strike
the ribbon it vibrates and cuts the magnetic lines of force within the air gap. This produces an
electrical signal that is a representation of the sound wave. The electrical signal that is produced
is usually very low-level so a ribbon microphone will also incorporate a transformer. The
transformer will help to boost the level of the signal.
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Construction of a Ribbon Microphone
Ribbon microphones typically have very good sonic quality and are very smooth and natural
sounding. However, ribbon microphones can be very fragile. This is especially true of older
ribbon microphones. Newer ones are much less fragile than older ones but are still not as sturdy
as a dynamic microphone. Common applications for ribbon microphones are vocals and acoustic
instruments. Older ribbon microphones do not handle high sound pressure levels very well so are
not used on guitar amplifiers or drum-sets unless placed a few feet away from the source.
Tube Microphones
A tube microphone is a type of condenser microphone but since it is so widely used in recording
it needs to be mentioned separately. A tube microphone uses the same design as the condenser
but instead of relying on voltage supplied from the mixing console it uses a separate vacuum
tube power supply. Tube microphones are generally very smooth sounding and are used
extensively in professional recording studios. Although technological advances have made it
possible to build quality tube microphones much less expensively, a good tube microphone can
range anywhere from $500 to over $10,000. For this reason they are not as common in home
and project studios. Tube microphones are used most often for recording vocals but are also
often used on acoustic instruments.
Microphone Selection and Placement
As mentioned earlier each microphone will have different sonic characteristics. Here are a few
brief suggestions on microphone selection and placement:
Vocals
A large diaphragm condenser microphone or a tube microphone is a good starting place for a
vocal microphone. For solo vocals use only one microphone placed 6-10 inches from the
vocalist. Be sure to use a pop filter an inch or two away from the microphone. While some
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vocalists do use dynamic microphones for recording vocals a large diaphragm condenser or tube
microphone is more common.
Acoustic Guitar
For mono recording, a small condenser microphone placed 8-12 inches from the guitar at about
the 12th fret will give a nice bright acoustic guitar sound. For a more open sound use a large
diaphragm condenser or tube microphone placed 8-12 inches directly in front of the guitar.
Moving the microphone towards the bridge will provide lower end while moving the microphone
up the neck will provide a brighter sound. For a stereo recording the most common method is to
use a small diaphragm condenser at the 12th fret as mentioned above and also a large diaphragm
condenser about 12 inches directly in front of the guitar or towards the bridge.
Electric Guitar
There are many different approaches to recording the electric guitar but the most basic is to
simply connect the guitar to an amplifier and use a dynamic microphone on the guitar amp. The
microphone should be fairly close to the grill cloth of the amplifier and a little off-axis from the
cone of the speaker. For a more open sound, place a large diaphragm condenser microphone a
few feet back from the amplifier and mix it with the signal of the dynamic microphone.
Electric Bass Guitar
The most common approach to recording an electric bass guitar is to run it through a DI box and
then into the mixing console. On the AW4416 there is a High Z input. This allows the electric
bass to be connected directly to the mixing console instead of going through the DI box. If
desired it can instead be connected to a bass amplifier and the amplifier would be recorded in the
same manner as described above for recording the electric guitar.
Drum set
There are two basic approaches to recording the drum set. One is to close mike the drum kit.
This involves having microphones close up on each individual drum, a stereo pair of overhead
microphones, and possibly distant room microphones also. This will provide a nice, tight sound
and the individual drum levels will be much more controllable. The drawback is that this
requires many microphones and will take up a large number of tracks on the multi-track recorder.
The second approach is to only use a few microphones. This will produce a more open, roomier
sound. If done correctly this will provide a very natural drum sound with a minimum number of
microphones. This will take a little more practice and more attention to microphone placement
than the close mike approach. A basic setup would be to use a separate microphone on the kick
and the snare drums, and also a stereo pair of overhead microphones. A distant room
microphone can also be used if desired.
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Here are some guidelines for the different drums within the drum set:
Kick drum – For a tight sound use a dynamic microphone designed for a kick drum. It
should be placed inside the kick drum 6-8 inches from the head and aimed at the beater
of the kick drum pedal. For a more open sound a large diaphragm condenser microphone
or a ribbon microphone would be placed 1-2 feet in front of the kick drum.
Snare drum – A dynamic microphone is used most often. Place it a few inches above the
top head of the snare and aim it at the center of the drum. If the sound of the bottom
snares is also desired a dynamic or small diaphragm condenser would be placed directly
underneath the snare drum and a few inches away. When doing this be sure to reverse
the phase of the bottom snare microphone. (The phase of a microphone can be reversed
on the View screen of the AW2816.)
Toms – If close miking the toms, the same approach as the snare can be used. It is
uncommon to mike the bottom of the toms but can be done if desired.
Overheads – One of the more common methods is to use a stereo pair of condenser
microphones placed a few feet above the drum set. Make certain that the microphones are
equidistant from the center of the snare drum.
Room microphones – For a mono room sound, a single large diaphragm condenser or
tube microphone would be placed in the most pleasing spot in the room. Walk around
the room until a spot is found in which the drum sets sounds the best and place the
microphone in this spot. For a stereo room sound use a pair of large diaphragm or tube
microphones placed in separate spots the same distance in the room from the drum set.
These are just some simple guidelines when selecting and placing microphones. There are no
rules. If these suggestions do not work for you, by all means try other microphones and different
placement. Choosing the right microphone and placing it in the right spot is a major factor in
obtaining a quality-sounding recording. If you are unhappy with the sound, it is always best to
experiment with microphone selection and placement before trying to correct it with
equalization.
It is a good idea to have several different microphones in your collection. A basic starting
microphone collection would be a few dynamic microphones, a pair of small diaphragm
condensers, and a good large diaphragm condenser.
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Cables
Once the microphone has taken the acoustic sound wave and converted it into an electrical
signal, the electrical signal must be sent to the mixing console. In order to do this the microphone
must be connected to the mixing console with a cable. There are many different types of cable
so this next section is devoted to various cable types, their construction, and how they are
commonly used.
For our purposes we will look at two basic types of cables. They are balanced and unbalanced.
Unbalanced Cables
Unbalanced cables are cables that have one wire and a shield around this wire.
Construction of an Unbalanced Cable
Unbalanced cables are generally used for connecting guitars, keyboards, or drum machines to the
mixing console. Cassette decks, consumer CD players, and mini disc players also will have
unbalanced outputs and therefore unbalanced cables will need to be used in order to connect it to
the mixing console.
The most common types of connectors used with unbalanced cables are phone plugs (also
referred to as ¼”) and phono (also referred to as RCA).
On the AW2816 the only unbalanced inputs are the Hi-Z input on channel 8 and the Stereo
Digital In. The only unbalanced outputs are the Omni Outs.
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Balanced Cables
Balanced cables have two wires and a shield.
Construction of a Balanced Cable
Because balanced cables have two conductors they are less susceptible to noise and hum than
unbalanced cables. This is particularly important when using long cable runs. The longer the
cable, the more susceptible it is to noise and hum.
Connectors
There are several types of connectors used in audio. The following are the most common:
XLR
The XLR connector is a 3-prong connector that was originally introduced by Canon. For this
reason it is also sometimes referred to as a Canon connector. The XLR connector is the most
common connecter used with balanced cables.
Only inputs 1 and 2 of the AW2816 use XLR connectors.
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TRS
The TRS (Tip/Ring/Sleeve) connector is a 1/4-inch connector used with balanced cables. It is
also referred to as a balanced 1/4 inch connector.
Inputs 3–8 of the AW2816 use TRS connecters. In order to connect microphones with XLR
outputs to inputs 3-8 of the AW2816, a XLR to TRS cable should be used. There is no need for
balancing transformers as inputs 3-8 are balanced.
The Monitor Outputs of the AW2816 also use TRS connectors.
PHONE
The phone connector is used with unbalanced cables. It is called a phone connector because it
was originally used for connecting lines together on a telephone switchboard. It is also
commonly referred to as unbalanced 1/4 inch connector. This is usually used for connecting
guitars or keyboards to amplifiers or to the mixer.
The Hi Z input and the Omni Outs of the AW2816 use unbalanced 1/4-inch connecters.
RCA
The Radio Corporation of America (RCA) was the original developer of the RCA connector. It
was developed, and is still commonly used, for home stereos and televisions.
It is also sometimes referred to as a phono connector.
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The only input on the AW2816 that uses a RCA connector is the Digital Stereo Input. The
outputs of the AW2816 that use RCA connectors are the Stereo Outputs and the Digital Stereo
Input.
The Mixing Console
The mixing console is the heart of the recording studio. It is where all of the audio signals are
connected and ultimately mixed down to a stereo audio signal so that it can be recorded onto a 2-
track recorder such as a CD or cassette recorder.
A mixing console is made up of many different channel strips. A channel on a mixing console is
where a single audio signal is connected and then routed to an output on the mixing console. A
channel on a mixing console will also have an equalizer section. On some mixing consoles there
will also be a dynamic processor such as a compressor. In addition to the channel strips the
mixing console will also have a master section. This would be where all of the signals are
combined to a stereo mix and then routed to various outputs. These outputs would include
monitor outputs, stereo outputs for recording to a 2-track recorder, and possibly headphone or
cue outputs.
There are two basic types of mixing consoles used for recording:
Inline Mixing Console – Both the inputs and the playback controls are on the same
channel.
Split-Mixing Console – The input and playback controls are on separate dedicated
channels.
NOTE: Playback channels are also commonly referred to as tape return or monitor channels.
The AW2816 is a split-mixing console. The first 8 channels of the AW2816 are input channels.
The next 4 channels are stereo input channels that are used for the outputs of the two internal
effect processors. The remaining 16 channels are used for playback of the 16 internal tracks.
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This comes to a total of 28 channels. Since the AW2816 obviously does not have 28 physical
channels the AW2816 uses “mixing layers” to control the 28 channels.
The Mixing Layers
The AW2816 has 3 mixing layers. Depending upon which mixing layer is selected, different
channels will be used.
When the INPUT 1-8 button is pressed, input channels 1-8 are being controlled. When the
RECORDER 1-8 button is pressed, playback channels 1-8 are being controlled. When the
RECORDER 9-16 button is pressed, playback channels 9-16 are being controlled. The 2 stereo
channels used for the output of the internal effects processors are controlled by the blue RTN 1
and RTN 2 knobs in the center of the AW2816.
The following image shows how the mixing layers function, and how the AW2816 would look if
it was laid out like an analog mixing console:
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Channel Strip Overview
The figure below shows what an input channel strip for the AW2816 would look like if it was an
analog mixing console.
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Phantom Power
As stated earlier, condenser microphones need an external power supply in order to work. This
is usually 48 volts. The mixing console will send 48 volts back to the microphone over the
microphone cable. Only inputs 1 and 2 of the AW2816 can supply phantom power to condenser
microphones. If more than 2 condenser microphones are to be used at one time with the
AW2816, an external phantom power supply should be used. These are available at most music
stores. The microphone should first be connected to the phantom power supply and then the
phantom power supply should be connected to the AW2816.
Microphone Pre-Amp
Next on an input channel is the microphone pre-amp. Microphones generally do not have very
high output levels. In order for the signal coming from the microphone to be recorded at a
sufficient level to be above the noise floor the signal must be boosted. The pre-amps job is to
boost the signal from the microphone. Typical microphone pre-amps have about 60 dB of gain
available. The AW2816 has 8 microphone pre-amps. Inputs 1-2 have XLR input connectors
while inputs 3-8 have 1/4” TRS connectors. The microphone pre-amps are identical on all 8
input channels but the input connectors are different. A XLR to TRS cable should be used to
connect more than 2 microphones to inputs 3-8 of the AW2816.
The 8 pre-amps on the AW2816, while sonically being very clean and transparent, have slightly
less gain. For most instances this is plenty but for recording quiet instruments or vocalists it may
be necessary to use an external microphone pre-amp.
A gain trim knob, located on the input channel, controls the level of each individual microphone
pre-amp. On the recording console this is usually located at the top of the input channel strip
while on some live consoles it is located right above the fader.
Peak Meter
The peak meter on a mixing console is normally right after the preamp. This is used to indicate
if the signal is clipping at the input stage. Some consoles have both peak meters and input level
meters while others simply have a peak meter. The AW2816 has a peak meter before the Analog
to Digital Converter and an input meter after the converter. The peak meter shows whether or not
the input signal is too high. The peak meter on the AW2816 lights up 3 dB before clipping. It is
acceptable to have the peak light come on periodically but if it stays on the input level is to high
and the gain trim should be turned down.
Phase Reversal Switch
Reverses the phase of the signal. Often if a signal is recorded with two microphones the
waveforms of the two signals will be beating in opposite directions creating a hollow or “out-of-
phase” sound. Since the waveforms would be beating in opposite directions they would begin to
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cancel each other out. Whenever using two microphones on an instrument the phase should be
checked.
Two Waveforms That Are Opposite Phase
Dynamic Processors
Digital mixers and expensive analog recording consoles will typically have some sort of dynamic
processing available on each individual channel. A dynamic processor simply provides control of
the signals level. Here are the different types of dynamics processors in the AW2816 and what
they do:
Compressor: A compressor does just what the name it implies; it compresses the signal.
Signals that exceed a specified level will be reduced by a set amount. This will even out
the level of the signal and provide a more consistent level. The threshold is the level at
which the compressor will begin to reduce the signal. The ratio is how much the signal
will be reduced when it passes the threshold level. Take for example a compressor that
has a threshold setting of –20dB and a ratio setting of 4:1. This means that only 1 dB of
output gain is allowed for every 4dB of input above –20 dB. So a signal with a level of –
16 dB would be reduced to –19 dB, a signal with a level of –12 dB would be reduced to -
18 dB, etc.
The output gain adds gain to compensate for any level that compression may have taken
away. The attack controls how fast the compression will be applied after the signal passes
the threshold. The release controls how long the compressor will continue to act after the
signal has fallen back below the threshold. The knee controls the curve of the
compressor. A soft knee (a setting of 5 on the AW2816) will provide smooth sounding
compression settings while a hard knee (a setting of 1 or below) will provide more drastic
compression.
Limiter:: A limiter is basically a specialized compressor. A limiter is used to control
peak levels without overly compressing the signal. A limiter is most often used on the
entire mix of all the tracks. To make a compressor act like a limiter, set the ratio very
high (20:1 or higher), the threshold close to 0 dB, a hard knee, and the attack to close to 0
ms.
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Noise Gate: A noise gate allows only levels that exceed the set threshold to pass
through. It is normally used to get rid of unwanted noise on tracks. A noisy guitar track
or a kick drum or snare drum track are examples of where a noise gate is often used. It is
generally recommended that a noise gate be used only after a track is recorded. If the
threshold is set incorrectly while recording there is the possibility that more than just the
unwanted noise will be gated out. By using the noise gate after the track has been
recorded there is room to experiment with the settings until it is set correctly.
Ducker: A ducker is a compressor that is triggered by a signal other than the channel
that is on. When the signal that is acting as a trigger exceeds the threshold level the
regular signal is compressed. A common application for a ducker is in a broadcast
situation. The ducker would be applied to the music channel and triggered by the DJ’s
microphone. Whenever the DJ speaks the level of the music will be “ducked” below the
level of the DJs microphone. Once the DJ stops talking the music will return to normal
broadcast levels. While not commonly used in music recording studios it can sometimes
be useful as an effect.
Expander: An expander works in just the opposite way of a compressor. It is used to
expand signals that may not have enough dynamic range to make it seem more
expressive. Signals that exceed the set threshold will have their gain increased according
to the ratio the same way that a compressor decreases the gain.
Compander: A compander is just what it sounds like, a combination of a compressor and
an expander. A compander raises the level of signals below the threshold and
compresses signals above the threshold.
This only scratches the surface of what a dynamic processor is about and what can be done with
them. Don’t expect to learn all about dynamic processors overnight but don’t be afraid to
experiment either. The AW2816 has 40 presets that are very useful for getting started. Use the
presets as starting points until more familiarity with dynamic processors is gained. A good
resource is a document entitled “Inside the 01V” distributed by C-Mexx. It details the effects
and dynamic processors within the 01V, another Yamaha digital mixer. This can be downloaded
at www.C-Mexx.com. (01V DOC/PDF supplements)
Equalizer
Next on the channel strip (see previous image) is the equalizer. An equalizer is used to modify
the frequency of the signal. In order to understand the equalizer we must first understand at least
a little about sound and how it works. As mentioned earlier, when a musical instrument is played
sound waves are created. The rate of a sound wave is called the frequency. Frequency is
expressed in Hertz. Hertz is a unit of measurement used to indicate frequency in cycles per
second.
The frequency of the sound wave corresponds to the pitch of the sound wave. The lower the
pitch of the sound wave is then the lower the fundamental frequency will be. For example, the
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