Supermicro SuperServer AS-2021A-T2R+F User manual

SCHLI
CH’S
MANUALOFFORES
TRY.
VOLUMEII .
SILVICUL T UR E .
SIRWM.SCHLICH,
PH.D.,M.A.Ox0N.
PROFESSOR OF FORESTRY
,UNIVE RSIT YOFOX F ORD;LATEI
NSPE CTOR-GENERAL
OF FORESTSTOTHEGOVERNMENTOFINDI A.
FOU
RTHEDITION,REVISED.
WITH106 IL L USTRAT I
ONS.
LONDON
BRADBURY
,AGNEW,CO.LD.,10
,BOUVERIE STRE ET.
1910.

BRADBURY,AGNEW,co.LD.,PRI
NTERS,
IONDONANDTONBR IDGE.

TABLE O F CO
NTEN TS.
INTRODUCTION
PAR TI.
—'
I
‘
HE F OUNDATIONSOFSILVICULTU RE
ChapterI
.
—
LOCALITYINREL ATIONToFORESTVEGETATION
Section I.
—TheAtmosphere
SectionII—Climate
1.Heat
2.Light
3.Moisture
4.AirCurrents
SectionII
I—Soil
1.Origin of Soil
FormationofIndigenousSoil
CompositionofSoil
PhysicalPropertiesof8011
C lass1ficationof 80115
EffectoftheSoiluponForestVegetation
SectionIK—EfiectofForestVegetationon theLocality
m
e
w
-
s
a
n
e
Section I
C—AssessmentoftheQualityoftheLocality
ChapterII.
—DE VELOPMENTOF FORESTTRE ES
1.Shape
2.HeightGrowth
3.DiameterGrowth
4.VolumeGrowth
5.DurationOfLife
6.ReproductivePower.
Chapter III.
—CHARACTERANDCOMPOSITIONOFWOODS.
Section I—PureWoods
Section IL—MixedWoods
1.Advan tagesofMixedWoods
LDisadvantages ofMixedWoods
3.RulesfortheFormation ofMixedWo
ods

viTABLE or C ONTENTS.
ChapterI
II
.
—cm
ltini1e/7.PAGE
Secti onI
I—
\Iixeil
4.MixtuiesofShadebeai iiigSpecies
.Mixtuies ofShadebea i ingwithLightd emanding
Spec ies
6.MixturesofLightdeman di n gSpecies
V
ChapterIV.
—THESILVICULTURALSYSTEMSOR METHODSor
TREATMENT9 2
SectionI—
Descripti on ofSystems93
1.ClearCuttinginHighFO i cs t9 3
2.TheShelter-woodCompartmentor UniformS
ystem96
3.TheShelter-woodGroupSystem98
4.TheShelter-woodSelectionSystem10
0
5.TheCoppiceSystem10 2
6.TheCoppice withStandards S
ystem104
7.HighForestwithStandards 107
8.Two-storied HighF orest108
9.HighForestwithSoil-protectionWood109
10.ForestryCombinedwiththeGrowingofField Crops 109
1 1.ForestryCombinedwithPasture 1 12
12.ForestryCombin edWiththeRe aringofGame112
SectionI
I.
—Choice ofS
ystem112
PAR TI
I
.
—
FORMA T IONANDR E GENE R ATIONO F WOODS119
ChapterI
.
—PRELIMINARYWORKS122
Sectio n L—ChoiceofSpecies122
SectionII.
-Fe nc ing128
SectionJ I
L—ReclamationoftheS
oil135
1.TreatmentofanImpermeableSubstratum136
2.TreatmentofSwampyGroundGenerally137
3.Iii'igationofAridLand143
4.TreatmentofExcessiveAcc umulationsofVegetable
Flatter
5.FixationofShiftingS and
6.Fixation o fUnstableS
oilonSlopes
ChapterII.
—ARTIFICIALFORMATIONOF WOODS
Section L—DirectS owing
A.ConditionsofSuccess
1.Choice ofSpecies
2.QualityofSeed
3.Quan tityofSeed
4.ConditionsofGermin ation
BMethodsofS
owing
1.B
roadcas tS
owing
2.Pa rtialSowing

TABLEOFCONTENTS.vii
ChapterI I.
—continue(l.PAGE
SectionII—Plaiiting
A.Condition sofSuccess
1.ChoiceofSpecies
2.Differe n tKinds ofPlants
3.QualityofPlan ts
Agean dSize ofPlants
Sea sonforPlanting
DensityofPlanting
Distribution ofPlan tsovertheArea
8.NumberofPlants
9.LiftingPlants
10.PruningPlants
11.Protection ofPlantsinTran sit
12.Preparation oftheSoil
s
i
c
B.RaisingPlan ts
1.PurchaseofPlan ts
2.Plan tstake n fromExistingWoods
3.RaisingPlan tsinNurse ries
C.Methods ofPlanting
l.Plan tingwithBallsofEarth
2.PlantingwithoutBalls ofEarth
3.MoundPlanting
D.Plan tingofSlips,Layers andSuckers
ChapterIII.
—NATURALREGENERATIONOFWOODS
S
ection L—NaturalRegenerationbySeed
A.NaturalRegeneration underaShelter-wood
1.TheCompa rtmen torUniformS
ystem
2.TheStripSystem
3.TheGroupSystem
4.CombinationoftheGroupan d StripSystems
5.TheSelection S
ystem
6.Comparative MeritsoftheFour S
ystems
B.NaturalRegen erationfromAdjoiningWoods
Section IL—NaturalRegenerationbyShootsandSuckers
ChapterIV.
—FORMATIONO F MIXEDWOODS
1.Formation of E ven AgedMixedWoods
2.Formation of:Uneven AgedMixedWoods
ChapterV.—
CHOICEOFMETHOD OFFORMATION
Section L—Choice betwe enDirectSowingandPlan ting
Section II.
—
Choicebetween ArtificialRegenerationan dNatura l
RegenerationbySeed
S
ectionIII—CombinationofSeveralMethods ofFormation282

TABLEOFCONTENTS.
PAR TIII— TENDINGO F WOODS
Chapter I
.
—TENDINGOFWOODSDURINGEARLYYOUTH
1.Protection agai nstExtern alDan gers
2.PreservationofaProperDen sityoftheCrop
3.Clean i ngofYoungWoods
4.Preservation ofaProperMixture
ChapterII.
—
TENDINGorFULLYSTOCK E DWOODSAFTEREARLY
YOUTH
SectionI—Remova lofDead,Injured,orotherms e Undesirable
Tre e s
S
ectionI
L—Pruning
SectionI
II —Thinning
1.General
2.TheMostSuitableGrowingSpace
3.TheTheoryofThinning
4.Thin n ingofMixedWoods
5.Thi n ningofCoppiceWoods
6.Pri n cipalAdvantagesofThinnings
7.Exec utionofThin n ings
ChapterIII
.—TENDINGorOPENWOODSFORTHEPRODUCTION
OFLARGETIMBER
1.TheTheory
2.Prin cipalFormsofTreatment
b3.Exec utionoftheWork.
PARTIV .
—
SILVICULTURALNOTESONBRITISHFO R ES
T
TRE E S
1.Beech
2.Hornbeam
3.Oak
4.Ash
5.Elm
6.SweetChestn u t
7.Maple
8.Alder
9.Birch
10.Willow
11.Poplar
12.Lime-tree
13.Hazel
14.Robinia
15.Walnut
16.SilverFi r
17.NorwaySpruce
18.SitkaSpruce
19.ScotchPine

TABLEOF CONTENTS.
PARTIV .
—
SILVICULTURALNOTESBRITISHFOR EST
TRE E S—continued.
PAGE
20.BlackorAustrianPine
Cors wanPine
WeymouthPi n e
Larch
24.DouglasFir
25.GiantThuia
Lawson’sCypress
WesternHemloc k
INDEX

SILVIC U LTU R E.
I
NTRODUCTI
ON.
S
IL VIOULTURE literally means the culture of forests,that is
to “say all measures connected with the formation,preserva
tion and treatment of forests.In practice,however,the word
forestry is used to express and comprise all this,while by
Silviculture,in its narrower sense,is understood the formation,
regeneration and tending of forests,or woods,until they
become ripe forthe axe.S ilviculture,in the lattersense,
teaches how a forest,or wood,can be produced and guided to
maturity so as to realise in the most advantageous manner the
object w hich the proprietorhas in View.
The obj ect,for which a particular forest is maintained,
depends on the will and pleasure of the owner,in so faras his
freedom of action is not limited by rights of third persons,or
by legal enactments.The obj ect itself can be one of many,
and of thesethe following may be mentioned by way of
illustration
1.To yield produce of a definite description,for instance
trees and shrubs of special beauty,ortrees giving a
certain kind of timber,or other produce fit for particular
purposes: such as gra ss,turpentine,caoutchouc,etc.
To produce the greatest possible quantity of wood or
other produce per acre and year.
3.To produce the highest possible money return,per acre
and year.
To produce the highest possibl e interest on the invested
capital.
5.To produce certain indirect effects forinstance,to
s.B

2INTRODUC TION.
influence the climate,to regulate the drainage of the
country,to prevent landslips or avalanches,to arrest
shifting sands,etc.
In each of these and other cases,the particular species of
tree to begrown and the method of treatment are likely to
differ,and itis the business of theforester to select those
species and methods which realise theobj ect of management
most fully and in the most economic manner.More especially,
the forester must always consider what
.
eff
ect thespecies and
the selected method of treatment arelikely to haveon the
property,and he must remember that any exceptional strain
put upon the soil for morethan a limited period,in order to
realise an exceptional effect,must be followed by a correspond
ing period of relaxation.Unless this is given,the soil,in the
majority of cases,will deteriorate,andit may ultimately
becomeabsolutely sterile.Suchan exceptional strain may
suit the special requirements of a particularow ner,but is not
in the interest of thegeneral community.Political Economy
teaches that the correct mode of procedure points to the care
ful preservation of theproductivepowers(or factors)of any
given locality,so as to render po ssiblethe production of the
same effect,or an increased one,regularly and indefinitely.
Experience has shown that in forestry the safest method of
preserving the productive powers of a locality consists in
maintaining uninterruptedly a crop of forest vegetation on the
area.The more frequently and the longer the ground is
uncovered and exposed to the full effects of sun and air
currents,themore,in themaj ority of cases,is the productive
po wer liableto be reduced.
The subject of S ilviculture will be treated under the
following headings
PARTI.
—
THEFOUNDATIONSOFS
I
LVI
OULTURE.
II.
—THEFOR MATIONANDREGENERATIONOFWOODS.
III.
—THETENDINGOF WOODS.
I
V.
—SILVICULTURALNOTESONFORESTTREES.

PARTI
.
THE FO UNDATI
O
NSO
F S
ILVICULTURE.

THEFOUNDATI
ONS OFSI
LVI
CULTURE.
THEnatural forest vegetation of the various parts of the
earth consists of a large number of species of trees and
Shrubs,each of which has its peculia rmode of growth,and
thrives best under certain conditions.Asthe latterdiffer
according to latitude,longitude (indicating the distance from
the ocean or large sheet Ofinland water),elevation,soil and
other circumstances,it follows that each part of the earth has
its peculiar forest flora.Andyet,the same type of forest is
found in parts of the earth which are separated by long
distances ;at any rate,some of the genera are the same,
althoughthe species may differ.How this separation has
come about,cannot be discussed in this book,but it may
safely be assumed that the local conditions in all these cases
must,at any rate approximately,be the same:Hence,it may
be said That the species found in such localities are
interchangeable,and (2)that the principles which govern the
selection of Species and their treatment must,practically,be
the same ;in other words,the fundamental laws of Silviculture
hold good in all thesecases.Thetheory of Silviculture can
belearnt in any part of theearth,but it remains to adapt it
to the local conditions with which the foresterhas to do.In
this volume,the examples required to illustrate the laws of
Silviculture will be taken chiefly from the timber trees ordinarily
growing in Western Europe on thefiftieth degreeof latitude,
and the country immediately to the n orth and south of it,
with the addition of afew Species introduced from other parts
of the earth which deserve extended cultivation in Western
Europe.
Ofthe specieshere in question,only a limited number
possess the faculty of forming by themselves healthy and
flourishing woods forany lengthof time,whileothers will

6THEFOUNDATIONSOF SILVICUL TURE.
Obtain perfection only if they are mixed with the former.
S
pecies are called rulingor de
pendent,according to whether
they belong to the first or second class.If the more
important timbertrees,growing inthe above-mentioned
region,arearranged accordingly,the following lists are
obtained
RulingS
pecies.
Decidedlyi'nling.
—
Beech,Silverfir,Norway and Sitka
spruce,Douglas fir,Scotch pine,hornbeam.
Condition a lly9'nling.
-Oak,Tyrolese and Japanese larch,
common alder,birch,willows,Austrian pine,Corsican pine,
mountain pine,Weymouthpine,sweet chestnut.
De
pendentS
pecies.
Ofthese may be mentionedAsh,Norway maple,sycamore,
poplar,elm,lime,white alder,Cembranpine,Robinia,and
others.
Althoughthe biological characteristics of these and other
species have been carefully studied formany years,the
subj ect has by no means been exhausted,because the factors
which affect the growthof trees vary constantly,and moreover
some of thesefactors are as yet imperfectly understood.The
experience so far gathered will befound in the succeeding
chapters.It is that experience which must guidethe forester
in the selection of species fora particular locality,and of the
subsequent method of treatment.
The subj ects which claim attention will bedealt within the
following fourchapters
Chapter I .
—LOCALITYINRELATIONToFORESTVEGETATION.
II.
—THEDEVELOPMENTOFFORESTTR EES.
III.
—
CHARACTERANDCOMPOSITIONOFWOODS.
I
V.
—THESILVICULTURALSYSTEMS.
Theseare matters which govern all forest operations,not
only the formation,regeneration,and tending of woods,but
also thedetermination of the yield,the preparation of working
plans,and theultimateutilisation of the forest produce.

CHAPTER I.
LOCALIT YINREL A TIO NT o F O R ESTVEGE TATIO N.
WHENa plant germinates on thesurface of the earth,it
sends its roots into thesoil,and its stem into the air.The
soil,assisted by the subsoil,provides to the plant themeans of
stability and nourishment ;the atmosphere overlying the soil
furnishes certain nourishing substances,heat,light,and mois
ture.Hence,the soil,including subsoil,and the atmosphere
are the media which act upon forest vegetation,and they
together are in silviculture called the“locality.
”The active
agencies orfactorsof the locality depend on the nature of the soil
andthecli mate,the latter being governed by the situation.The
sum total of these factors represents the qualityor yieldca
pa
cityof the locality.The forester requires to be well acquainted
withthe manner in which soil and climate act on forest vege
tation,in orderto decide in each case which species and method
of treatment are best adapted,undera given setof conditions,
to yield the most favourable results.The detailed considera
tion of the laws whichgovern this branch of forestryfinds a
place in theauxiliary sciences,such asPhysics,Chemistry,
Meteorology,Botany,Mineralogy,and Geology.Asufficient
knowledge of these branches of science is assumed,so that here
only theirapplication to Silviculture need beconsidered.
The chapter will be divided into the following sections
Section I.
—
The Atmosphere.
II.
—The Climate.
III.
—TheSoil and its Effect on Forest Vege
tation.
IV.
—Effect of Forest Vegetation on the Locality.
V.
—
Assessment of the Quality of the Locality.

8LOCALITYANDFORESTVEGETATION.
SECTIONI
.
—'
I
‘
HEATMOSPHERE.
The earth is surrounded by gaseous bodies,which move
with it,and collectively are termed the atmosphere.Owing
to the weight of its component parts,the atmosphere is densest
close to the surface of the earth,and becomes thinnerwith
increasing distancefromtheearth,passinggradually into space.
Thesubstances of the atmosphere of special importance in
S
ilviculture are
Oxygen and Nitrogen.
Carbon dioxide.
Moisture.
Solid bodies.
Ammonia and Nitric Acid.
1.OXYGEN ANDNITROGEN.
Thechief constituents of the atmosphereare21parts of
oxygen and 79parts of nitrogen in a mechanical mixture.
Nochemical process is required to separate oxygen from
nitrogen ;as a matter of fact,all porous bodies possess the
faculty of taking oxygen from the atmosphere,without enter
ing into a chemical combination with it.Amongst such
bodies are the soil,leaves,bark,and roots of plants.Until a
comparatively late date it was believed that plants could not
take nitrogen direct from the air.It has now been proved
that certain plants,including various forest trees,can do this,
and further investigation will doubtlessly lead to additional
discoveries in this respect.
Although the leaves of plants take up oxygen,they exhale
greaterquantities of it under the effect of light ;the latter is
theresult of the decomposition of carbon dioxide by the
leaves,which retain the carbon and surrenderthe oxygen.
Thus,plants are powerful agents in the production of oxygen.
The action of theair in the soil is chiefly two-fold ;it causes
the evaporation of moisture and the decomposition of organic
matter.The airwhich penetrates into thefissures and inter
sticesof thesoil becomes charged withvapour and carbon

10LOCALITYAND FOREST VEGETATION.
part in the circulation of moisture ;they receive it from the
soil through theroots,and evaporate it through theleaves.
In this perpetual circularmotion of moisture,several point
are of special interest to the forester.B
ythe actionof
heat,wateris converted into vapour,and consequently
evaporating bodies becomedrier and cooler,and reduce the
temperature of thesurrounding layers of air in their effort
to replacethe expended heat.It follows that the rate of
evaporation is,amongst otherinfluences,governed bythe
temperature,whichdepends upon the climate.Thereis,how
ever,anotherreason why therate of evaporation depends on
the temperature—
Themaximum of vapourwhichsaturated
air can hold rises at a more rapid rate than theincrease in
temperature.It follows that airof a hightemperature can
hold more vapourthan at a lowtemperature,and yet the
relativehumidity may besmaller in the former case.Hence,
evaporation is morerapid in summerthan in winter;it is
generally also greater during the day than at night.
4.S OLID BODIES.
The atmosphere always contains a certain quantity of
organic and inorganic solid bodies,which are kept in suspen
sion in consequence of theirminutesizeand lightness.
These bodies are carried about byaircurrents and may
bedeposited in certainlocalities.Again,when vapour
is condensed and falls to theground as rain,snow,or
hail,it carries with ita certain quantity of these solid bodies,
which differs according to locality ;themineral part of these
deposits is not inconsiderable compared withthat which
is required annually forthe production of timber on a fully
stocked area.Amongst the substances thus brought to the
ground are calcium carbonate,magnesium carbonate,sodium
chloride,calcium sulphate,ferric oxide,alumina,silica,organic
nitrogenous matter,etc.Direct analysis has shown that
upwards of 80 0lb.of these substances have been deposited
on an acre of land in oneyear,a quantity morethan sufficient

CLIMATE.l1
to provide for that contained in a heavyincrement of wood
laid on during the same period.In other cases,observations
have shown that the quantities deposited are considerably less
than 30
0lb.peracre.Theactual amount depends in the first
place on the amount of rainfall.
5.AMMONIAANDNITRICACID.
Limited amounts of these important substances are con
tainedin the atmosphere ;they supply nitrogen to forest plants
in considerable quantities,especially forthe formation of seeds,
Acertain quantity of ammonia and nitric acid is brought
into thesoil by the annual rainfall wherethelatter is
heavy,the quantity of thesubstances thus obtained by the
soil may be s uflicientfor all therequirements of forest growth,
but where it is light,this will not bethe case.
Asalready stated,certain plants (Leguminosae)can take
nitrogen direct from the air.Furtherinvestigation may Show
that the assimilation of nitrogen by theplant from the airis
far more extended than is at present known.
SE C TIONII.
—
THECL IMAT E .
B
yclimate is understood the local peculiarities of the
atmosphere in respect of temperature,degree of clearness,
moisture,and rest or motion.Asalready indicated,the climate
of a locality depends on its situation.
The climate of a locality is of greaterinfluence upon the life
and growth of plants than the degree of fertility of the soil ;
hence,it demands the forester’s special attention.Generally
speaking,the climate of a locality depends on
Latitude and longitude,or geographical position.
Elevation above the level of the sea.
Aspect and gradient.
Shape of the surface and the condition of surroundings.
Each of these affects the heat,light,and humidity of a
locality,which are the agencies determining the commence
ment and course of the annual phenomena of vegetation.