Agilent Technologies HP 8719D User manual

Service Guide
Agilent Technologies
8719D/20D/22D
Network Analyzers
Manufacturing Part Number: 08720-90292
Printed in USA
Print Date: February 1999
Supersedes: June 1998
© Agilent Technologies, Inc. 1996 - 1999

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model number HP 8720D is now model number Agilent 8720D.
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Canada
(tel) [phone]
(fax) [phone]
Mexico
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(tel) = primary telephone number; (alt) = alternate telephone number; (fax) = FAX number; * = in country number
11/16/04

Service Guide
i 8719D/2OD/22D
Network Analyzer
Ra
HEWLETT
PACKARD

HP part number: 08720-90292
Supersedes June 1998
Printed in USA February 1999
Notice.
The information contained in this document is subject to change without notice.
Hewlett-Packard makes no warranty of any kind with regard to this material,
including but not limited to, the implied warranties of merchantability and
fltness for a particular purpose. Hewlett-Packard shall not be liable for errors
contained herein or for incidental or consequential damages in connection with
the fur&hing, performance, or use of this material.
@Copyright 1996-1999 Hewlett-Packard Company

Network Analyzer Documentation Set
The Instalhtion and Quick Start Guide familiarizes you with the
network analyzer’s front and rear panels, electrical and
environmentaloperating requirementq as well as procedure8 for
installing, conflghng and verifying the operation of the aualyze~
The UaeFs Gpide shows how to make measurementq
explains
commonly-used features, and tells you how to get the most
performauce from your analyzes
The Quick Reference Guide providea a summary of all available
user features.
The Progmmmwr’s Guide providea p~information
including an HP-IB command reference,an HP-IB prolpamming
referencq as well as pro(gamming examples.
The fhrvice GUI& provides information to m, troubleshoot,
rep&q andverify conformauce to published speculations. Available
with Option OBW.
. . .
III

Contents
1. Service Equipment and Analyzer Options
Bble of Service l&t Equipment
................
Principles of Microwave Connector Care
............
Analyzer Options Available
...................
Option lD5, High Stability F’requency Reference
........
OptionOO7,MechanicalTransferSwitch.
...........
OptionO85,Highl%werSystem.
...............
Option 089, Frequency Offset Mode
..............
Option 012, Direct Access Receiver Configuration
.......
Option 490, Four-Sampler l&t Set
..............
Option010,TimeDomain
..................
Option lCM, Rack Mount Flange Kit Without Handles
.....
Option ICP, Rack Mount Flange Kit With Handles
.......
Service and Support Options
..................
Option WO8
.........................
Option W31
.........................
Option W51
.........................
Option W32
.........................
Option W52
.........................
OptionW34
.........................
OptionW54
.........................
2. System Verification and Performance ‘B&s
Howto~stthePerformanceof~~Analyzer
.........
Insbmwnt Verilkation Cycle
.................
SectionsmthisChapter
....................
Prehninary Checks
......................
Check the Temperature and Humidity
.............
ChecktheAnalyzerInternal’ksts
..............
Run the Operation Check
...................
CleanandGageAllConnectors
................
Checkthe!lkstRortCables
..................
l-l
14
l-6
l-6
l-6
l-6
l-6
l-7
l-7
l-7
1-7
l-7
l-8
l-8
l-8
l-8
l-8
l-8
l-9
1-9
2-l
2-2
24
2-5
2-5
2-6
2-6
2-7
2-8

ReturnLossofCables
................... 2-8
Insertion Loss of Cables
.................. 2-10
Magnitude and Phase Stability of Cables
..........
2-11
Cable connector Repeatability
............... 2-12
System Verification
......................
2-15
Verifcation Kit
......................
2-15
Measurement Uncertainty
.................
2-16
Measurement Traceability
................. 2-16
What the System Verifkation Verifies
2-17
Required Equipment and Accessories 2-18
Cable Substitution 2-18
Calibration Kit Substitution 2-19
Equipment Initialization
2-20
Measurement Calibration 2-22
Verilication Device Measurements .............. 2-25
Connecting a Device
....................
2-25
InCaseofDifJiculty
.....................
2-29
IftheSystemFhilstheVerifkationTkst ...........
2-29
Interpreting the Verification Results .............. 2-32
1. Frequency Accuracy Performance lkst
2-35
IftheInstrumentFWs!IWslkst
............... 2-36
2. Power Flatness Performance l&t
.............. 2-37
If the Instrument FWs !lhis Test
PowerLinearity Rxformance!IkG 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2-38
240
For 8719DfiOD Only
.....................
240
F’or 87221) Only
.......................
2-41
If the Instrument Fails This T&t 2-43
4.DynamicRange~~o-ceTest’:::::::::::::: 2-44
IftheInstrumentFhilsThisTht
...............
2-48
Performance Test Record
....................
2-49
3. Adjustments and Correction Com&a,nts
Post-Repair Procedures
.....................
3-3
A7 Jumper/Switch Positions ..................
3-8
Source Pretune Correction Constants (T&t 43)
..........
3-10
InCaseofDi~culty
.....................
3-11
Analog Bus Correction Constants (‘l&t 44)
............ 3-12
IF Amplifier Correction Constants (Test 47)
........... 3-13
IncaseofDii3kuky
.....................
3-13
ADC Offset Correction Constants (l&t 48)
............
3-14
IncaseofDif.Eculty
.....................
3-14
content8-2

Serial Number Correction Constants (l&t 49)
..........
3-15
InCaseofDifIiculty
.....................
3-16
Protected Option Numbers Correction Constants (Test 50)
....
3-17
IncaseofDifficulty
.....................
3-18
Unprotected Hardware Option Numbers Correction Constants
. . 3-19
InCaseofDifTiculty
.....................
3-20
OutputPower Arijustments
...................
3-21
SetmainpowerDACtopresetvalues
.............
3-21
Set the potentiometers to the minimum levels.
.........
3-22
StarttheAdjustment.
....................
3-23
Adjust Mid Band Power
...................
3-24
Adjust Low Band Power
...................
3-25
Adjust High Band Power (8722D ONYX)
............
3-25
FineTunetheFlatness.
...................
3-25
InCaseofDif&ulty
.....................
3-28
Power Linearity Adjustment
..................
3-29
Preparatory Steps
......................
3-29
For 8722D Analyzers Only
.................
3-30
ForAllAnalyzers
.....................
3-31
InCaseofDif3hllty
.....................
3-32
BlaukingAdjustment(‘Ikst54)
.................
3-33
InCaseofDifkulty .....................
3-34
Initialize EEPROMs (Test 53)
..................
3-35
EEPROM Backup Disk Procedure
................
3-36
Correction Constants Retrieval Procedure
............
3-38
Loading Firmware
.......................
3-39
hxdingFirmwareintoanExisthgCPU.
...........
3-39
InCaseofDi~culty
....................
3-40
LoadingFirmwareIntoaNewCPU
..............
3-41
InCaseofDili.lc!ulty
....................
3-41
Reference Assembly VCO Tune Adjustment
...........
3-43
I.ncaseofDif3culty
.....................
3-44
Frequency Accuracy Adjustment
................
3-45
InstrumentswithOptionlD5Only
..............
3-48
InCaseofDiflkulty
.....................
Fractional-N Spur Avoidance and FM Sideband Adjustment
....
;$
IncaseofDimculty
.....................
3-52
contonto4

4. Start Troubleshooting Here
Assembly Replacement Sequence
................ 42
Having Your AnaIyzer Serviced
................. 42
Step 1. Initiai Observations.
.................. 43
Initiate the Anaiyzer Self-Test
................ 43
Step 2. Operator’s Check
.................... 45
Description
......................... 45
Procedure
.......................... 46
Step3.HP.IBSystemsCheck.
................. 47
IfUsingaPlotterorPrinter
................. 48
IfUsinganExternalDiskDrive
................ 48
Troubleshooting Systems with Multiple Peripherals
....... 49
Troubleshooting Systems with Controilers
........... 49
Step 4. Faulty Group Isolation
................. 410
Power Supply
......................... 411
ChecktheRearPanelLEDs.
................. 411
ChecktheA8PostRegulatorLEDs
.............. 411
Digital Control.
........................ 412
Observe the Power Up Sequence (firmware revisions 6.x~ and
below)
.......................... 412
Observe the Power Up Sequence (firmware revisions 7.xx and
above)
.......................... 413
VerifyInternaIlbstsI%ssed.
................. 415
Source
............................ 416
PhaseLockErrorMessages.
................. 416
Check Source Output Power
................. 417
NoOsciRoscopeorPowerMetei?TrytheABUS
........ 419
Receiver
........................... 420
Switch Repeatability
...................... 421
Accessories
.......................... 422
6. Power Supply Tronbleshootiqj
PowerSupply !i”roubleshooting Flowchart
............
5-2
Assembly Replacement Sequence
................
5-3
Simplified BlockDiagram ....................
5-4
StartHere.
..........................
5-5
ChecktheGreenLEDandRedLEDonA15
..........
5-5
ChecktheGreenLEDsonA8. ................
5-6
Measure the Post Regulator Voltages
.............
5-6
IftheGreenLEDoftheA15isOfforBiinking. .........
5-8
Check the Line Voltage, Selector Switch, and F’use
.......
5-8
contonM

IftheRedLEDoftheA15isOn ................
ChecktheA8PostRegulator
.................
Verify the Al5 Preregulator
.................
CheckforahultyAssembly .................
Check the Operating ‘&mperature
..............
Inspect the Motherboard
......
IftheGreenLEDsoftheA8arenotA,ll& : : 1 : 1 : : : : 1 :
Remove A& Maintain A15Wl Cable Connection
........
ChecktheA8F’usesandVoltages
...............
Remove the Assemblies
...................
Briefly Disable the Shutdown Circuitry
............
Inspect the Motherboard
...................
Error Messages
ChecktheF’uses~d&o&,e’A8: 1: 1: 1 : 1 : 1: 1 : 1: 1
& Troubleshooting
......................
Fhn Speeds
.........................
Check the Fan Voltages.
...................
Short ASTP3 to Ground
...................
Intermittent Problems
.....................
6. Digital Control Tronbleshooting
Assembly Replacement Sequence
................
CPU Troubleshooting (A7)
...................
A7 Jumper/Switch Positions
.................
Checking A7 CPU Red LED Patterns (For instruments with
llrmware revisions 6.xX and below.)
............
Checking A7 CPU Red LED Patterns (F’or instruments with
ilrmware revisions 7.xx and above.)
............
Display Troubleshooting (A18, Al9) ...............
Evaluating your Display
...................
Baddight Intensity Check
.................
Red, Green, or Blue Pixels Specifications
..........
Dark Pixels Specifications
.................
Newton’s Rings
......................
A19 GSP and Al8 Display Troubleshooting
..........
Measure Display Power Supply Voltages Entering A19
....
RunDisplayllest55
....................
Inspect Ribbon Cable Repeat Display %st 55
.........
performWalkingOnePattem.
...............
RunDisplay%ts59-76
..................
Front Panel Troubleshooting (Al/A2)
..............
5-9
5-9
5-10
5-11
5-13
5-13
5-14
5-14
5-14
5-15
5-16
5-18
5-19
5-19
5-20
5-20
5-20
5-20
5-21
6-2
6-8
6-8
6-10
6-12
6-14
6-14
6-14
6-16
6-16
6-16
6-18
6-18
6-19
6-19
6-19
6-21
6-22
coatonto-6

7.
Check Front Panel LEDs After Preset .............
6-22
Identify the Stuck Key ....................
6-22
Inspect Cables
........................
6-24
Test Using a Controller ....................
6-25
RuntheInternaIDiagnostic'Iksts ................
6-25
If the Fault is Intermittent ...................
6-27
Repeat Test F’unction. ....................
6-27
HP-II? FXhrres .........................
6-27
Source Troubleshooting
Source ‘I’roubleshooting Flowchart
...............
7-2
Assembly Replacement Sequence
................
7-3
Before You Start Troubleshooting
................
7-3
StartHere.
.......................... 74
Phase Lock Error Message Displayed
............. 74
Power Not Within Specifications
...............
7-6
Broadband Phase Lock Problems
................ 7-6
Swap Samplers to Check A64R Sampler.
...........
7-7
Check Open Loop Power (HP 8719D/2OD only)
........
7-8
CheckOpenLoopPower(HP8722DOnIy).
..........
7-8
Check Al2 Reference
.................... 7-9
Check Al4 F’ractionaI-N ChecksWith ABUS
..........
7-10
Al3 F’ractionai-N Analog and Al4 F’ra.ctionai-N DigitaI Check with
spectrum
........................
A14VCORangeCheckwithOsciIloscope
...........
;:a;
Al4 VC0 Exercise
......................
7-13
Al4 Divide-by-N Circuit Check
................
7-13
A14to-A13 Digita’i Control SignaIs Check
...........
7-14
A52 pulse GeneratorCheckWith OsciIloscope
.........
7-16
A52 Puise Generator Check With Spectrum AnaIyzer
.....
7-17
Band-R&ted Problems.
....................
7-19
Broadband Power Problems
..................
7-23
ALC/SignaI Separation Check
.................
7-23
A69 Step Attenuator Check
.................
7-24
contents-6

8. Receiver Troubleshooting
Assembly Replacement Sequence
................
AllSiPathsLookAbnormal
................
2ndLOCheck
........................
4MHzCheck
........................
AtLeastOneSgnalFathLooksNormal
.............
Directional Coupler Check
..................
AandBSamplerCheckbySubstitution
............
Sampler Voltage Check
....................
2nd Converter Check
....................
9. Accessories !t’roubleshooting
Inspect and Gage Connectors
..................
InspecttheErrorTixms
....................
IsolatetheFimltintheRFFath.
...............
Assembly Substitution Fault Isolation
............
Cable *St
..........................
VerifyShortsandOpens
...................
10. Service Key Menus and Error Messages
Service Key Menus.
......................
Error Messages
........................
............
Tests Menu
Di!3pIay!ksts
Test Options Menu
......................
Self Diagnose Softkey
Test Descriptions.
......................
Intemal?Iksts..
.....................
Extemall)ests
.......................
8ystem VerificationTests
Adjustment %sts
.....................
DispIay!ksts
.......................
Patterns
.......................
Service Key Menus
.
Service Features
Service Modes Menu
.....................
Service Modes More Menu
..................
AnaIogl3us..
.......................
DescriptionoftheAnalogBus
...............
TheMainADC.
......................
The kequency Counter
..................
8-2
8-2
8-2
8-3
8-3
8-6
8-7
8-8
8-9
9-2
9-2
9-4
9-4
9-4
9-5
lo-l
l(F2
lo-2
10-4
10-6
lo-7
lo-9
1@9
lo-9
lo-15
lo-16
lo-17
lo-19
lo-19
1@22
lo-23
lo-25
lo-26
1@26
lo-27
lo-27
cont8nt8-7

Analog In Menu
.......................
Andog Bus Nodes
.......................
AlODQitaiIF ........................
AllPhaseLock .......................
Al2 Reference
........................
Al4 Fractional-N (Digital)
..................
PEEK/POKE Menu
......................
Flrmware Revision Softkey
...................
HP-IB Service Mnemonic De&&ions
..............
Invoking !I&& Remotely
...................
Analog Bus Codes
......................
Error Messages
........................
11. Errorlkrms
ErrorlkmsCanAIso8erveaDiagnosticPurpose
........
Measurement Calibration Procedure
..............
Error lkrm Inspection
.....................
IfError!Ihns8eemWorsethanTypicaIVaIues
........
Uncorrected Performance
..................
Error T&n Descriptions
....................
Directivity (EDF and EDR)
..................
SourceMatch(ESFandESR)
.................
Description
........................
Reflection!hcking(ERFandERR)
..............
IsoIation(Crosstaik,EXFandEXR)
..............
LoadMatch(ELFandELR).
.................
Transnhsion ‘I’racking (ETFand ETR) .............
lo-28
lo-30
lo-30
lo-31
lCK34
lo-35
lo-36
lo-37
lo-38
lo-38
lo-39
10-40
11-l
11-3
11-5
11-6
11-6
11-8
11-9
11-10
11-10
11-11
11-12
11-13
11-14
12. Theory of Operation
Introduction
.......................... 12-1
System Operation
.......................
12-1
FunctionaI Groups of the Analyzer
............... 12-3
Power Supply Theory
.....................
12-4
Al5 Prereguiator
......................
12-4
Line Power Module
.................... 12-5
PrereguIated Voltages
...................
12-5
Regulated +SVDigitaI8upply
...............
12-5
Shutdown Indications: the Green LED and Red LED
.....
12-5
A8 Post Regulator
...................... 12-6
Voltage Indkations: the Green LEDs
............ 12-6
shutdown circuit
.....................
12-6
Contents.8

VariableF%nCircuitandAirFlowDetector
.........
12-6
Display Power
.......................
12-7
Digital Control Theory
.....................
12-7
Al Front Panel
.......................
12-8
A2 Front Panel Processor.
..................
12-8
CPU/A10 Digital IF (firmware revisions 6.xx and below)
. .
12-8
A7 CPU/A10 Digital IF (fhnware revisions 7.xx and above)
. . 12-8
Main CPU (llrmware revisions 6.xx and below)
.......
12-9
Main CPU (ilrmware revisions 7.xx and above)
.......
12-9
MainRAM
.........................
12-9
EEPROM
.........................
12-9
DigitalSignalProcessor
..................
12-10
Al8 Display
.........................
12-10
A19 GSP
..........................
12-10
A20 Inverter
........................
12-11
Al6 Rear Panel
12-11
Source Group Theory
12-12
8ourcePretune..
.....................
12-14
A14/A13 Fractional-N Synthesizer
..............
12-14
A52 Pulse Generator: the Harmonic Comb
..........
12-14
A64 RSampler: Down-Converthg theSignals
.........
12-14
All Phase Lock: Comparing Phase and Frequency
.......
12-15
TuningtheYIGCkcillator.
..................
12-15
Phase Locked Sweep
.....................
12-15
Al2 Reference: the CrystaJ Reference Frequencies
......
12-16
SourceBlock: TheYIGOsciUatorSignals
12-17
ALC: Automatic Leveling Control
...............
12-18
Signal Separation
.......................
12-19
A58 M/A/D/S Modulator, Amplifier, Detector, Splitter
......
12-19
option4ooAs8M/A/D,andA74switchsplittRr
........
12-20
A69 Step Attenuator
.....................
12-21
S4TransferSwitch.
.....................
12-21
A56 Lower Front Panel Assembly
...............
12-21
A60andA61DCBias’hs ..................
12-21
A62 and A63 Directional Couplers
..............
12-21
Receiver Theory
........................
12-22
Samplers and Second Converters
...............
12-22
AlODi@tallF
........................
12-23
contonto-g

13. Replaceable Parts
Replacing an assembly
.....................
Rebuilt-Exchange Assemblies
..................
Ordering Information
.....................
Replaceable part Ustings
....................
Major Assemblies, ‘lbp
....................
M@or Assemblies, Bottom
..................
Cables, Top
.........................
Cables, Bottom
.......................
Cables, kont
........................
Cables, Rear
.........................
Front Panel Assembly, Outside
................
Front Panel Assembly, Inside
.................
Rear Panel Assembly
.....................
Rear Fan@ Assembly, Option lD5
...............
Hardware, 'lbp
........................
Hardware, Bottom
......................
Hardware, Front
.......................
Hardware, Preregulator
...................
ChassisFarts,Outside
....................
ChassisFarts,Inside
.....................
14. Assembly Replacement and Post-Repair Procedures
Replacing an Assembly
.....................
Procedures Described in this Chapter
.............
LineFuse ...........................
!lbols Required
........................
Removal
..........................
Replacement
........................
Covers
............................
lbolsRequired ........................
Removing the top cover
...................
Removing the side covers
..................
Removing the bottom cover
.................
Front Panel Assembly
.....................
Tools Required
........................
Removal
..........................
Replacement
........................
Front Panel Interface and Keypad Assemblies
..........
‘Ibols Required
........................
Removal
..........................
13-2
13-3
13-3
13-5
13-6
13-10
13-13
13-16
13-22
13-26
13-27
13-28
13-30
13-32
13-34
13-36
13-38
13-39
13-40
13-41
142
143
144
144
144
144
146
146
146
146
146
148
148
148
148
1410
1410
1410

Replacement
........................
1410
Display Lamp and Assembly
..................
1412
Tools Required
........................
1412
Removal
..........................
1412
Replacement
........................
1412
Rear Panel Assembly
......................
1414
Tools Required
........................
14-14
Removal
..........................
1414
Replacement
........................
1415
Rear Panel Interface Board Assembly
..............
1416
lbols Required
........................
1416
Removal
..........................
1416
Replacement
........................
1416
Source Assemblies
.......................
1418
Tools Required
........................
1418
Removal
..........................
1418
A58 M/A/D/S Removal
...................
1418
Oscillator Removal
.....................
1418
A9 Source Control Board Removal
.............
1419
Replacement
........................
1420
A7 CPU Board Assembly
....................
1422
‘IboIs Required
........................
1422
Removal
..........................
1422
Replacement
........................
1422
A7EBTl Battery
........................
1424
Tools Required
........................
1424
Removal ..........................
1424
Replacement
........................
1424
Al5 Preregulator Assembly
...................
1426
Tools Required
........................
1426
Removal
..........................
1426
Replacement
........................
1426
A19 Graphics Processor Assembly
................
1428
lbols Required
........................
1428
Removal
..........................
1428
Replacement
........................
1428
A3DiskDriveAssembly
....................
1430
‘JboIs Required
........................
1430
Required Diskette
......................
1430
Removal
..........................
1430
Replacement
........................
1432
contents-11

A62, A63 Test Port CouplersandLEDBoard Assemblies
.....
lbols Required
........................
Removal
..........................
LED Board Removal
................
Replacement
.................... : : : 1
A26 High Stability Frequency Reference (Option lD5) Assembly
.
lbols Required
........................
Removal
..........................
Replacement
....................
BlFhnAssembly
...................
: : : :
Tools Required
....................
Removal
......................
1: 1:
Replacement
....................
Post-Repair Procedures.
................
1 1 1 1
1434
1434
1434
1434
1434
1436
1436
1436
1436
1438
1438
1438
1438
1440
15. Safety and Licensing
Notice
certlflcao;l:::: ::::::::::: :::::::::::
15-1
15-1
Assistance...........................
15-1
Shipment for Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15-2
SafetySymboIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15-4
Instrument Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15-4
General Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15-5
Safety Earth Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15-5
Before Applying Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15-5
servic!lng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15-5
Compliance with German FlZ Emissions Requirements . . . . .
15-6
Compliance with German Noise Requirements . . . . . . . . .
15-7
A. Detemhing System Measurement Uncertainties
Sources of Measurement Errors
.................
A-2
Sources of systematic Errors
.................
A-2
Sources of Random Errors
..................
A-2
SourcesofDriftErrors.
...................
A-3
Sources of Additional Measurement Errors
.......... A-3
Measurement Uncertainty Equations
.............. A-4
Reflection Uncertainty Equations
...............
A-4
lbtal Reflection Magnitude Uncertainty (Erm)
........ A-4
Reflection Phase Uncertainty (Erp)
.............
A-5
!I’ransmi&on Uncertainty Equations
.............
A-6
Transmission Magnitude Uncertainty (Etm)
......... A-6
content8-12

A62, A63 lkst Port CouplersandLEDBoard Assemblies
.....
lbols Required
........................
Removal
LEDBoidRemoval.. .......................
::::::::::
Replacement
........................
A26 Bigh Stability F’requency Reference (Option lD5) Assembly
.
lbols Required
........................
Removal
..........................
Replacement
........................
BlFhnAssembly
.......................
TboIs Required
........................
Removal
..........................
Replacement
........................
Post-Repair Procedures
.....................
1434
1434
1434
1434
1434
1436
1436
1436
1436
1438
1438
1438
1438
1440
15. Safety and Licensing
Notice ............................
15-1
Certification
..........................
15-1
Assistance ...........................
15-1
Shipment for Service.
.....................
15-2
Safety Symbols
........................ 15-4
Instrument Markings
...................... 15-4
General Safety Considerations
.................
15-5
Safety Earth Ground
.....................
15-5
Before Applying Power
...................
15-5
servicing
..........................
15-5
Compliance with German FTZ Emissions Requirements
.....
15-6
Compliance with German Noise Requirements
.........
15-7
A. IMamMng System Measurement Uncertainties
Sources of Measurement Errors
.................
A-2
Sources of Systematic Errors
.................
A-2
Sources of Random Errors
..................
A-2
SourcesofDriftErrors.
...................
A-3
Sources of Additional Measurement Errors
..........
A-3
Measurement Uncertainty Equations
.............. A-4
Reflection Uncertainty Equations
...............
A-4
Tlbtal Reflection Magnitude Uncertainty (Erm)
........ A-4
Reflection Phase Uncertainty (Erp)
............. A-5
!l!ransmksion Uncertainty Equations
.............
A-6
Transmhsion MagnitudeUncertainty (Et@ .........
A-6
contents-12