Leadshine Technology MA860 User manual

User sManual
For
MA860
HighPerformanceMicrosteppingDriver
Version 1.0
2007All RightsReserved
Attention:Pleaseread thismanual carefullybeforeusingthe driver!
3/F, Block 2, NanyouTiananIndustrialPark, NanshanDist, Shenzhen, China
T: (86)755-26434369 F: (86)755-26402718
Website: www.leadshine.com E-Mail: [e-mail]
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improvereliability,function ordesign.Leadshinedoesnotassumeanyliabilityarisingoutofthe
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Leadshine sgeneralpolicydoesnotrecommend theuseofitsproductsinlifesupportoraircraft
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damages.
2007byLeadshineTechnologyCompanyLimited.
AllRightsReserved

Contents
I
TableofContents
1. Introduction, FeaturesandApplications....................................................................1
Introduction...........................................................................................................1
Features.................................................................................................................1
Applications..........................................................................................................1
2. Specifications............................................................................................................1
ElectricalSpecifications........................................................................................1
OperatingEnvironmentandotherSpecifications..................................................2
MechanicalSpecifications.....................................................................................2
EliminationofHeat...............................................................................................3
3. PinAssignmentandDescription...............................................................................3
ConnectorP1 Configurations................................................................................3
SelectingEffectivePulseEdgeorEffectiveLevelandControlSignalMode......3
ConnectorP2 Configurations................................................................................4
4. ControlSignalConnector(P1)Interface...................................................................4
5. Connecting theMotor................................................................................................5
Connectionsto4-leadMotors...............................................................................5
Connectionsto6-leadMotors...............................................................................5
HalfCoil Configurations...............................................................................5
FullCoil Configurations................................................................................6
Connectionsto8-leadMotors...............................................................................6
SeriesConnections........................................................................................6
ParallelConnections......................................................................................7
6. PowerSupplySelection............................................................................................7
RegulatedorUnregulatedPowerSupply..............................................................7
MultipleDrivers....................................................................................................7
SelectingSupplyVoltage.......................................................................................8
7. SelectingMicrostepResolutionand DriverOutputCurrent.....................................8
MicrostepResolutionSelection............................................................................8
CurrentSettings.....................................................................................................9
Dynamiccurrentsetting................................................................................9
Contents
II
Standstill currentsetting................................................................................9
8. Wiring Notes...........................................................................................................10
9. TypicalConnection..................................................................................................10
10. Sequence ChartofControlSignals.......................................................................11
11. ProtectionFunctions..............................................................................................11
Short-voltageandOver-voltageprotection.........................................................11
Over-currentProtection.......................................................................................11
ShortCircuit Protection.......................................................................................12
12. FrequentlyAskedQuestions..................................................................................12
ProblemSymptomsand PossibleCauses............................................................13
APPENDIX.................................................................................................................13
Twelvemonthlimitedwarranty..........................................................................13
Exclusions...........................................................................................................13
Obtainingwarrantyservice.................................................................................13
Warrantylimitations............................................................................................13

MA860 MicrosteppingDriverManual V1.0
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1. Introduction,Featuresand Applications
Introduction
TheMA860isahigh performancemicrosteppingdriverbasedonpure-sinusoidalcurrentcontrol
technology. Owingtotheabovetechnologyand theself-adjustmenttechnology(self-adjust current
controlparameters)accordingtodifferentmotors,thedrivenmotorscanrunwithsmallernoise,
lowerheating,smoothermovementand havebetterperformancesathigherspeedthanmostofthe
driversinthemarkets. Itissuitablefordriving2-phaseand 4-phasehybridsteppingmotors.
Features
lHighperformance, cost-effective
lSupplyvoltageupto60VACor+80VDC
lOutput currentupto7.2A
lSelf-adjustmenttechnology
lPure-sinusoidal currentcontroltechnology
lPulseinputfrequencyup to300KHz
lTTLcompatibleandopticallyisolatedinput
lAutomaticidle-current reduction
l15 selectableresolutionsindecimaland
binary, upto51,200steps/rev
lSuitablefor2-phaseand4-phasemotors
lSupportPUL/DIRand CW/CCWmodes
lShort-voltage,over-voltage,over-current
and short-cicuit protection
Applications
Suitableforawiderangeofsteppingmotors,fromNEMAsize17to43.Itcanbeusedinvarious
kindsofmachines,suchasX-Ytables,labelingmachines,lasercutters,engravingmachines,
pick-placedevices,and soon.Particularlyadapttotheapplicationsdesiredwithlownoise,low
heating,highspeedandhigh precision.
2. Specifications
ElectricalSpecifications (Tj=25 /77℉)
MA860
Parameters Min Typical Max Unit
Output current 1.8 - 7.2(5.1RMS) A
18 48 60 VAC
Supplyvoltage +24 +68 +80 VDC
Logicsignal current 7 10 16 mA
Pulseinputfrequency 0 - 300 KHz
Isolationresistance 500 MΩ
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Operating EnvironmentandotherSpecifications
Cooling Natural CoolingorForcedcooling
Environment Avoiddust, oil fog andcorrosivegases
AmbientTemperature 0 －50 (32℉－122℉)
Humidity 40%RH －90%RH
OperatingTemperature 70 (158℉)Max
OperatingEnvironment
Vibration 5.9m/s2 Max
StorageTemperature -20 －65 (-4℉－149℉)
Weight Approx. 570g(20.10oz)
MechanicalSpecifications(unit: mm[inch])
Figure 1:Mechanicalspecifications
*Recommend use sidemountingforbetterheatdissipation

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EliminationofHeat
lDriver sreliableworkingtemperatureshouldbe<70 (158℉),and motorworkingtemperature
shouldbe<80 (176℉);
lItisrecommendedtouseautomaticidle-currentmode,namelycurrentautomaticallyreduceto
60%whenmotorstops,soastoreducedriverheatingandmotorheating;
lIt isrecommendedtomountthedriververticallytomaximize heatsinkarea. Useforcedcooling
methodtocool thesystem ifnecessary.
3. PinAssignmentand Description
TheMA860 hastwoconnectors,connectorP1forcontrolsignalsconnections,and connectorP2for
powerandmotorconnections.Thefollowingtablesarebriefdescriptionsofthetwoconnectors.
Moredetaileddescriptionsofthepinsandrelatedissuesarepresentedinsection4,5, 9.
ConnectorP1 Configurations
PinFunction Details
PUL+
PUL-
Pulsesignal: Insinglepulse(pulse/direction)mode,thisinputrepresentspulse
signal,activeateachrisingorfallingedge(setbyinsidejumperJ3);4-5V
whenPUL-HIGH,0-0.5VwhenPUL-LOW.Indoublepulsemode
(pulse/pulse), thisinputrepresentsclockwise(CW)pulse，activeat highlevel
orlowlevel(setbyinsidejumperJ3).Forreliableresponse,pulsewidth
shouldbelongerthan1.5μs.Seriesconnectresistorsforcurrent-limitingwhen
+12Vor+24Vused. ThesameasDIRandENAsignals.
DIR+
DIR-
DIRsignal: Insingle-pulsemode,thissignalhaslow/highvoltagelevels,
representingtwodirectionsofmotorrotation;indouble-pulsemode(setby
insidejumperJ1),thissignaliscounter-clock(CCW)pulse，activeathigh
levelorlowlevel(setbyinsidejumperJ3).Forreliablemotionresponse,DIR
signalshouldbeaheadofPULsignalby5μsatleast.4-5VwhenDIR-HIGH,
0-0.5VwhenDIR-LOW.Pleasenotethatmotion directionisalsorelatedto
motor-driverwiringmatch.Exchangingtheconnectionoftwowiresforacoil
tothedriverwill reversemotiondirection.
ENA+
ENA-
Enablesignal: Thissignalisusedforenabling/disablingthedriver.Highlevel
(NPNcontrolsignal,PNPand Differentialcontrolsignalsareonthecontrary,
namelyLowlevelforenabling.)forenablingthedriverandlowlevelfor
disablingthedriver.Usuallyleft UNCONNECTED (ENABLED).
Selecting EffectivePulseEdgeorEffectiveLevelandControlSignalMode
TherearetwojumpersJ1andJ3insidetheMA860specificallyforselectingactivepulseedgeor
effectiveleveland controlsignalmode,asshowninfigure2.DefaultsettingisPUL/DIRmodeand
upward-risingedgeactive.(Note:J2insidethedriverisusedtoreversethedefaultrotationdirection.)
MA860 MicrosteppingDriverManual V1.0
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(a)J1, J3opencircuit (b)J1opencircuit, J3shirtcircuit
PUL/DIRmode andActive atrisingedge (NPN) PUL/DIRmode andactive atfalling edge (NPN)
(c)J1shortcircuit, J3opencircuit (d)J1, J3shortcircuit
CW/CCWmode andactive atlowlevel(The fixedlevel)CW/CCWmode and active athigh level(The fixedlevel)
Figure 2:J1andJ3jumpers
ConnectorP2 Configurations
PinFunction Details
AC
AC
Powersupply,18~60VACor24~80VDC,Includingvoltagefluctuation
and EMFvoltage.
A+,A- MotorPhaseA
B+, B- MotorPhaseB
4. ControlSignalConnector(P1)Interface
TheMA860 canacceptdifferentialandsingle-endedinputs(includingopen-collectorandPNP
output). TheMA860 has3opticallyisolatedlogicinputswhicharelocatedonconnectorP1toaccept
linedrivercontrol signals.Theseinputsareisolatedtominimizeoreliminateelectricalnoisescoupled
ontothedrivecontrolsignals.Recommend uselinedrivercontrolsignalstoincreasenoiseimmunity
ofthedriverininterferenceenvironments. Inthefollowingfigures,connectionstoopen-collectorand
PNPsignalsareillustrated.
Figure 3:Connectionstoopen-collectorsignal(common-anode)

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Figure 4:ConnectiontoPNPsignal(common-cathode)
5. ConnectingtheMotor
TheMA860 candriveany2-pahseand 4-pahsehybridsteppingmotors.
Connectionsto 4-leadMotors
4leadmotorsaretheleastflexiblebuteasiesttowire.Speedandtorquewilldepend onwinding
inductance.Insettingthedriveroutputcurrent,multiplythespecifiedphasecurrentby1.4to
determinethepeakoutput current.
Figure 5:4-leadMotorConnections
Connectionsto 6-leadMotors
Like8leadsteppingmotors,6leadmotorshavetwoconfigurationsavailableforhighspeedorhigh
torqueoperation. Thehigherspeedconfiguration,orhalfcoil,issodescribedbecauseit usesonehalf
ofthemotor sinductorwindings.Thehighertorqueconfiguration, orfullcoil,usesthefullwindings
ofthephases.
HalfCoilConfigurations
Aspreviouslystated,thehalfcoilconfigurationuses50%ofthemotorphasewindings.Thisgives
lowerinductance, hence,lowertorqueoutput. Liketheparallel connectionof8leadmotor, thetorque
outputwillbemorestableathigherspeeds.Thisconfigurationisalsoreferredtoashalfchopper.In
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settingthedriveroutputcurrentmultiplythespecifiedperphase(orunipolar) currentratingby1.4to
determinethepeakoutput current.
Figure 6:6-leadmotorhalfcoil (higherspeed)connections
FullCoilConfigurations
Thefullcoil configurationonasixleadmotorshouldbeusedinapplicationswherehighertorqueat
lowerspeedsisdesired.Thisconfigurationisalsoreferredtoasfullcopper.Infull coil mode,the
motorsshouldberunatonly70%oftheirratedcurrenttopreventoverheating.
Figure 7:6-leadmotorfull coil (highertorque)connections
Connectionsto 8-leadMotors
8leadmotorsofferahighdegreeofflexibilitytothesystemdesignerinthattheymaybeconnected
inseriesorparallel, thussatisfyingawiderangeofapplications.
SeriesConnections
Aseriesmotorconfiguration wouldtypicallybeusedinapplicationswhereahighertorqueatlower
speedsisrequired.Becausethisconfigurationhasthemostinductance,theperformancewillstartto
degradeathigherspeeds.Inseriesmode,themotorsshouldalsoberunat only70%oftheirrated
currenttopreventoverheating.
Figure 8:8-leadmotorseriesconnections

MA860 MicrosteppingDriverManual V1.0
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ParallelConnections
An8leadmotorinaparallel configurationoffersamorestable, butlowertorqueatlowerspeeds.But
becauseofthelowerinductance,therewill behighertorqueathigherspeeds.Multiplytheperphase
(orunipolar) currentratingby1.96,orthebipolarcurrent ratingby1.4, todeterminethepeakoutput
current.
Figure 9:8-leadmotorparallelconnections
6. PowerSupplySelection
TheMA860 canmatchmediumandsmallsizesteppingmotors(fromNemasize 17to43)madeby
Leadshineorothermotormanufacturesaround theworld. Toachievegooddrivingperformances,itis
importanttoselectsupplyvoltageandoutputcurrentproperly.Generallyspeaking,supplyvoltage
determinesthehighspeedperformanceofthemotor,whileoutputcurrentdeterminestheoutput
torqueofthedrivenmotor(particularlyatlowerspeed).Highersupplyvoltagewillallowhigher
motorspeedtobeachieved,atthepriceofmorenoiseandheating.If themotionspeedrequirementis
low,it sbettertouselowersupplyvoltagetodecreasenoise,heating and improvereliability.
RegulatedorUnregulatedPowerSupply
Bothregulatedandunregulatedpowersuppliescanbeusedtosupplythedriver.However,
unregulatedpowersuppliesarepreferredduetotheirabilitytowithstandcurrentsurge.Ifregulated
powersupplies(suchasmostswitchingsupplies.)areindeedused,itisimportanttohavelarge
currentoutputratingtoavoidproblemslikecurrentclamp,forexampleusing4Asupplyfor3A
motor-driveroperation. Ontheotherhand,ifunregulatedsupplyisused, onemayuseapowersupply
oflowercurrent ratingthanthatofmotor(typically50%～70%ofmotorcurrent).Thereasonisthat
thedriverdrawscurrentfromthepowersupplycapacitoroftheunregulatedsupplyonlyduringthe
ON duration ofthePWMcycle,butnotduringtheOFFduration.Therefore,theaveragecurrent
withdrawnfrompowersupplyisconsiderablyless thanmotorcurrent.Forexample,two3Amotors
canbewellsuppliedbyonepowersupplyof4Arating.
MultipleDrivers
Itisrecommendedtohavemultipledriverstoshareonepowersupplytoreducecost,ifthesupply
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hasenoughcapacity.Toavoidcrossinterference, DONOT daisy-chainthepowersupplyinputpins
ofthedrivers.(Instead,pleaseconnect them topowersupplyseparately.)
Selecting Supply Voltage
ThepowerMOSFETSinsidetheMA860 canactuallyoperatewithin18 ~60VACor+24 ~ +80VDC,
includingpowerinputfluctuationandbackEMFvoltagegeneratedbymotorcoilsduringmotorshaft
deceleration.Highersupplyvoltagecanincreasemotortorqueathigherspeeds,thushelpfulfor
avoidinglosingsteps.However,highervoltagemaycausebiggermotorvibrationatlowerspeed,and
itmayalsocauseover-voltageprotectionorevendriverdamage.Therefore, itissuggestedtochoose
onlysufficientlyhighsupplyvoltageforintendedapplications,and itissuggestedtousepower
supplieswiththeoreticaloutputvoltageof18~55VACor+24~+75VDC,leavingroomforpower
fluctuationandback-EMF.
7. SelectingMicrostepResolutionand DriverOutputCurrent
Thisdriverusesan8-bitDIPswitchtosetmicrostepresolution,and motoroperatingcurrent,as
shownbelow:
MicrostepResolutionSelection
MicrostepresolutionissetbySW5,6,7,8oftheDIPswitch asshowninthefollowingtable:
Microstep Steps/rev.(for1.8 motor) SW5 SW6 SW7 SW8
2 400 ON ON ON ON
4 800 OFF ON ON ON
8 1600 ON OFF ON ON
16 3200 OFF OFF ON ON
32 6400 ON ON OFF ON
64 12800 OFF ON OFF ON
128 25600 ON OFF OFF ON
256 51200 OFF OFF OFF ON
5 1000 ON ON ON OFF
10 2000 OFF ON ON OFF

MA860 MicrosteppingDriverManual V1.0
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20 4000 ON OFF ON OFF
25 5000 OFF OFF ON OFF
40 8000 ON ON OFF OFF
50 10000 OFF ON OFF OFF
100 20000 ON OFF OFF OFF
200 40000 OFF OFF OFF OFF
CurrentSettings
Foragivenmotor,higherdrivercurrentwillmakethemotortooutputmoretorque,butatthesame
timecausesmoreheatinginthemotoranddriver. Therefore, outputcurrentisgenerallysettobesuch
thatthemotorwill notoverheatforlongtimeoperation.Since paralleland serialconnectionsof
motorcoilswill significantlychangeresultinginductanceandresistance,it isthereforeimportantto
setdriveroutputcurrentdependingonmotorphasecurrent,motorleadsand connectionmethods.
Phasecurrentratingsuppliedbymotormanufacturerisimportantinselectingdrivercurrent,however
theselectionalsodependsonleadsand connections.
Thefirst threebits(SW1,2, 3)oftheDIPswitchareusedtosetthedynamiccurrent.Select asetting
closesttoyourmotor srequiredcurrent.
Dynamiccurrentsetting
RefCurrent(Screenprinting) PeakCurrent SW1 SW2 SW3
2.00A 2.40A ON ON ON
2.57A 3.08A OFF ON ON
3.14A 3.77A ON OFF ON
3.71A 4.45A OFF OFF ON
4.28A 5.14A ON ON OFF
4.86A 5.83A OFF ON OFF
5.43A 6.52A ON OFF OFF
6.00A 7.20A OFF OFF OFF
Notes: RefCurrenttableonthescreenprintingisusedfortheusersoftheM860torefer. Dueto
motorinductance,theactualcurrentinthecoil maybesmallerthanthedynamiccurrentsetting,
particularlyunderhighspeedcondition.
Standstillcurrentsetting
SW4isusedforthispurpose.OFFmeaningthatthestandstill currentissettobehalfoftheselected
MA860 MicrosteppingDriverManual V1.0
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dynamiccurrent,andONmeaningthatstandstillcurrentissettobethesameastheselecteddynamic
current.
Thecurrentautomaticallyreducedto60%oftheselecteddynamiccurrentonesecond afterthelast
pulse.Theoretically,thiswillreduce motorheatingto36%(duetoP=I2*R)oftheoriginalvalue.If
theapplicationneedsadifferentstandstill current, pleasecontact Leadshine.
8. WiringNotes
lInordertoimproveanti-interferenceperformanceofthedriver,itisrecommendedtouse
twistedpairshieldcable.
lTopreventnoiseincurredinPUL/DIRsignal,pulse/directionsignalwiresandmotorwires
shouldnotbetieduptogether.Itisbettertoseparatethembyatleast10cm,otherwisethe
disturbingsignalsgeneratedbymotorwilleasilydisturbpulsedirectionsignals,causingmotor
positionerror,system instabilityand otherfailures.
lIf apowersupplyservesseveraldrivers,separatelyconnectingthedriversisrecommended
insteadofdaisy-chaining.
lItisprohibitedtopullandplugconnectorP2whilethedriverispoweredON,becausethereis
highcurrentflowingthroughmotorcoils(evenwhenmotorisatstandstill).Pullingorplugging
connectorP2withpoweronwill causeextremelyhigh back-EMFvoltagesurge,whichmay
damagethedriver.
9.TypicalConnection
Acompletesteppingsystemshouldincludesteppingmotor,steppingdriver,powersupplyand
controller(pulsegenerator).Atypical connection isshownasfigure10.
Figure 10:Typicalconnection

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10. SequenceChartofControlSignals
Inordertoavoidsomefaultoperationsanddeviations,PUL,DIRandENAshouldabidebysome
rules,shownasfollowingdiagram:
Figure 11:Sequence chartofcontrolsignals
Remark:
a) t1:ENAmustbeaheadofDIRbyatleast5µs.Usually,ENA+and ENA-areNC(not
connected).See “ConnectorP1Configurations”formoreinformation.
b) t2:DIRmustbeaheadofPULeffectiveedgeby5µstoensurecorrect direction;
c) t3:Pulsewidthnotlessthan1.5µs;
d) t4:Lowlevelwidthnotlessthan1.5µs.
11. ProtectionFunctions
Toimprovereliability,thedriverincorporatessomebuilt-inprotectionsfeatures.
Short-voltageandOver-voltageprotection
Whenpowersupplyvoltageislowerthan13VACor+18VDC,short-voltageprotectionwillbe
activatedandpowerindicatorLEDwillturnoff.Whenpowersupplyvoltageexceeds67VACor
+94VDC, over-voltageprotectionwillbeactivatedandAlarm indicatorLEDwillturnon.
Over-currentProtection
Protection willbeactivatedwhencontinuouscurrentreachesto16A.
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ShortCircuitProtection
Protection will beactivatedincaseofshortcircuit betweenmotorcoilsorbetweenmotorcoiland
ground.
12. FrequentlyAskedQuestions
Intheeventthatyourdriverdoesn toperateproperly, thefirst stepistoidentifywhethertheproblem
iselectricalormechanicalinnature. Thenextstepistoisolatethesystemcomponentthatiscausing
theproblem. Aspart ofthisprocess youmayhavetodisconnecttheindividual componentsthatmake
up yoursystemandverifythattheyoperateindependently.Itisimportanttodocumenteachstepin
thetroubleshootingprocess.Youmayneedthisdocumentationtoreferbacktoatalaterdate,and
thesedetailswill greatlyassistourTechnicalSupportstaffindeterminingtheproblemshouldyou
needassistance.
Manyoftheproblemsthataffectmotioncontrolsystemscanbetracedtoelectricalnoise,controller
softwareerrors, ormistakeinwiring.

MA860 MicrosteppingDriverManual V1.0
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ProblemSymptomsand PossibleCauses
Symptoms PossibleProblems
Nopower
Microstepresolutionsettingiswrong
DIPswitchcurrentsettingiswrong
Fault condition exists
Motorisnotrotating
Thedriverisdisabled
Motorrotatesinthewrongdirection
Motorphasesmaybeconnectedinreverse
DIPswitchcurrentsettingiswrong
Thedriverinfault Somethingwrongwithmotorcoil
Control signal istoo weak
Control signal isinterfered
Wrongmotorconnection
Somethingwrongwithmotorcoil
Erraticmotormotion
Current settingistoo small, losingsteps
Current settingistoo small
Motorisundersizedfortheapplication
Accelerationissettoo high
Motorstallsduringacceleration
Powersupplyvoltagetoo low
Inadequateheatsinking/cooling
Automaticcurrentreductionfunction not beingutilized Excessivemotorand driverheating
Current issettoo high
MA860 MicrosteppingDriverManual V1.0
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APPENDIX
Twelvemonthlimitedwarranty
LeadshineTechnologyCo., Ltd.warrantsitsproductsagainstdefectsinmaterialsand
workmanshipforaperiodof12monthsfromshipment outoffactory.Duringthewarrantyperiod,
Leadshinewilleither,atitsoption,repairorreplaceproductswhichprovedtobedefective.
Exclusions
Theabovewarrantydoesnotextendtoanyproduct damagedbyreasonsofimproperorinadequate
handlingsbycustomer,improperorinadequatecustomerwirings,unauthorizedmodificationor
misuse,oroperationbeyond theelectricalspecificationsoftheproductand/oroperationbeyond
environmentalspecificationsfortheproduct.
Obtainingwarranty service
Toobtainwarrantyservice,areturnedmaterialauthorizationnumber(RMA)mustbeobtained
fromcustomerserviceate-mail: [e-mail] beforereturningproductforservice.
CustomershallprepayshippingchargesforproductsreturnedtoLeadshineforwarrantyservice,
and Leadshineshallpayforreturnofproductstocustomer.
Warranty limitations
Leadshinemakesnootherwarranty,eitherexpressedorimplied,withrespecttotheproduct.
Leadshinespecificallydisclaimstheimpliedwarrantiesofmerchantabilityand fitnessfora
particularpurpose.Somejurisdictionsdonotallowlimitationsonhowlongandimpliedwarranty
lasts,sotheabovelimitationorexclusionmaynot applytoyou. However, anyimpliedwarrantyof
merchantabilityorfitnessislimitedtothe12-monthdurationofthiswrittenwarranty.
Shippingfailedproduct
If yourproductfailduringthewarrantyperiod,e-mailcustomerserviceat [e-mail] to
obtainareturnedmaterialauthorizationnumber(RMA)beforereturningproductforservice.
Pleaseincludeawrittendescriptionoftheproblemalongwithcontactnameandaddress.Send
failedproducttodistributorinyourareaor:LeadshineTechnologyCo., Ltd.3/F,Block2,Nanyou
TiananIndustrialPark,NanshanDist,Shenzhen,China. Alsoencloseinformationregardingthe
circumstancespriortoproductfailure.