Kistler 9317C User manual

Instruction
Manual
Triaxial load cell
Type 9317C
Type 9327C
Type 9347C
Type 9367C
Type 9377C
Type 9397C
93x7C_002-893e-06.21

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 2 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
Foreword
Thank you for choosing a Kistler quality product
characterized by technical innovation, precision and long
life.
Information in this document is subject to change without
notice. Kistler reserves the right to change or improve its
products and make changes in the content without
obligation to notify any person or organization of such
changes or improvements.
© 2021 Kistler Group. Kistler Group products are protected
by various intellectual property rights. For more details visit
www.kistler.com. The Kistler Group includes Kistler
Holding AG and all its subsidiaries in Europe, Asia, the
Americas and Australia.
Kistler Group
Eulachstraße 22
8408 Winterthur
Switzerland
Tel. [phone]
[e-mail]
www.kistler.com

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 2 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
Foreword
Thank you for choosing a Kistler quality product
characterized by technical innovation, precision and long
life.
Information in this document is subject to change without
notice. Kistler reserves the right to change or improve its
products and make changes in the content without
obligation to notify any person or organization of such
changes or improvements.
© 2021 Kistler Group. Kistler Group products are protected
by various intellectual property rights. For more details visit
www.kistler.com. The Kistler Group includes Kistler
Holding AG and all its subsidiaries in Europe, Asia, the
Americas and Australia.
Kistler Group
Eulachstraße 22
8408 Winterthur
Switzerland
Tel. [phone]
[e-mail]
www.kistler.com
Content
93x7C_002-893e-06.21 Page 3
Content
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................4
2. Important notes ..............................................................................................................................5
2.1 For your safety......................................................................................................................5
2.2 Unpacking ............................................................................................................................6
2.3 Notes on handling the instrument.........................................................................................6
2.4 Tips on the use of this instruction manual .............................................................................7
2.5 What happens in the event of changes? ...............................................................................7
3. General description of the instrument ............................................................................................8
3.1 What is the purpose of a triaxial load cell?............................................................................8
3.2 Functional principle .............................................................................................................10
4. Assembly, installation and initial start-up ....................................................................................12
4.1 Important notes ..................................................................................................................12
4.2 Mounting of Triaxial Force Sensors .....................................................................................12
5. Measuring range/introduction of force.........................................................................................14
5.1 Triaxial Force Measurement using a Single 3 Axis Load Cell................................................14
5.2 Triaxial force measurement using a Dynamometer..............................................................20
5.3 6 axis force/torque measurement using a Dynamometer....................................................22
5.4 Measuring system with triaxial load cell ..............................................................................23
5.5 Measuring system with four triaxial load cells (Dynamometer)............................................23
6. Operation .....................................................................................................................................24
6.1 Range selection...................................................................................................................24
6.2 Measuring small force changes ...........................................................................................24
6.3 Useful frequency range .......................................................................................................26
6.4 Piezoelectric force measurement .........................................................................................28
6.5 Hints for better measuring results .......................................................................................31
6.6 Polarity of the measuring signal ..........................................................................................31
7. Maintenance.................................................................................................................................32
7.1 Recalibrating the instrument ...............................................................................................32
7.2 Maintenance work ..............................................................................................................32
8. Troubleshooting ...........................................................................................................................34
8.1 Diagnosis and rectification of faults.....................................................................................34
8.2 If your sensor is defective....................................................................................................34
9. Optional accessories.....................................................................................................................35
10. Annex ...........................................................................................................................................36
10.1 Glossary ..............................................................................................................................36
10.2 Measurement uncertainty ...................................................................................................39
10.3 Linearity..............................................................................................................................40
10.4 Frequency range .................................................................................................................42
10.5 Influence of temperature.....................................................................................................43

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 4 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
1. Introduction
Please take the time to thoroughly read this instruction
manual. It will help you with the installation, maintenance,
and use of this product.
To the extent permitted by law Kistler does not accept any
liability if this instruction manual is not followed or
products other than those listed under Accessories are
used.
Kistler offers a wide range of products for use in measuring
technology:
Piezoelectric sensors for measuring force, torque, strain,
pressure, acceleration, shock, vibration and acoustic-
emission
Strain gage sensor systems for measuring force and
moment
Piezoresistive pressure sensors and transmitters
Signal conditioners, indicators and calibrators
Electronic control and monitoring systems as well as
software for specific measurement applications
Data transmission modules (telemetry)
Kistler also develops and produces measuring solutions for
the application fields engines, vehicles, manufacturing,
plastics and biomechanics sectors.
Our product and application brochures will provide you
with an overview of our product range. Detailed data
sheets are available for almost all products.
If you need additional help beyond what can be found
either on-line or in this manual, please contact Kistler's
extensive support organization.

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 4 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
1. Introduction
Please take the time to thoroughly read this instruction
manual. It will help you with the installation, maintenance,
and use of this product.
To the extent permitted by law Kistler does not accept any
liability if this instruction manual is not followed or
products other than those listed under Accessories are
used.
Kistler offers a wide range of products for use in measuring
technology:
Piezoelectric sensors for measuring force, torque, strain,
pressure, acceleration, shock, vibration and acoustic-
emission
Strain gage sensor systems for measuring force and
moment
Piezoresistive pressure sensors and transmitters
Signal conditioners, indicators and calibrators
Electronic control and monitoring systems as well as
software for specific measurement applications
Data transmission modules (telemetry)
Kistler also develops and produces measuring solutions for
the application fields engines, vehicles, manufacturing,
plastics and biomechanics sectors.
Our product and application brochures will provide you
with an overview of our product range. Detailed data
sheets are available for almost all products.
If you need additional help beyond what can be found
either on-line or in this manual, please contact Kistler's
extensive support organization.
Important notes
93x7C_002-893e-06.21 Page 5
2. Important notes
It is essential for you to study the following information,
compliance with which is for your personal safety during
the work and will ensure long, fault-free operation of the
instrument.
2.1 For your safety
This instrument has been thoroughly tested and has left
the factory in a perfectly safe condition. In order to
maintain this condition and to ensure hazard-free oper-
ation, the user must comply with the information and
warning notes contained in this instruction manual.
The sensor must be installed, operated and maintained
only by persons who are familiar with the instrument
and are adequately qualified for the work concerned.
If it is accepted that safe operation is no longer possible,
the instrument must be shut off and made safe against
accidental start-up.
It must be assumed that safe operation is no longer
possible when the product
shows visible signs of damage,
has been overloaded,
is no longer operating,
has been in lengthy storage under unsuitable
conditions and
has been subjected to rough transport conditions.
Mount the load cell in position as described. Details can
be found in Section 4.2 "Mounting of triaxial load cell".
Secure all parts mounted on the force transducer
according to anticipated forces!

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 6 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
2.2 Unpacking
Check all packaging for transport damage. Report any such
damage to the transporters and to the authorized Kistler
distributor.
2.3 Notes on handling the instrument
The load cell must only be used under the specified
environmental and operating conditions.
With piezoelectric sensors, insulation resistance is of
crucial importance. In order to preserve this critical
property, all plug-and-socket connections must be kept
absolutely clean and dry. The insulation resistance can
be measured with the insulation tester Type 5493.
Protect the connector of the sensor against
contamination and on no account touch it with your
fingers (connector front). Fit the cover supplied over the
connector when it is not in use.
A high-insulation cable is used to connect the sensor to a
charge amplifier. Once fitted, it should if possible remain
connected to the sensor. Use only specified connecting
cables.
Protect the sensor when it is not in use by storing it in
its original packaging.

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 6 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
2.2 Unpacking
Check all packaging for transport damage. Report any such
damage to the transporters and to the authorized Kistler
distributor.
2.3 Notes on handling the instrument
The load cell must only be used under the specified
environmental and operating conditions.
With piezoelectric sensors, insulation resistance is of
crucial importance. In order to preserve this critical
property, all plug-and-socket connections must be kept
absolutely clean and dry. The insulation resistance can
be measured with the insulation tester Type 5493.
Protect the connector of the sensor against
contamination and on no account touch it with your
fingers (connector front). Fit the cover supplied over the
connector when it is not in use.
A high-insulation cable is used to connect the sensor to a
charge amplifier. Once fitted, it should if possible remain
connected to the sensor. Use only specified connecting
cables.
Protect the sensor when it is not in use by storing it in
its original packaging.
Important notes
93x7C_002-893e-06.21 Page 7
2.4 Tips on the use of this instruction manual
We recommend you to read through the entire instruction
manual. However, if you are in a hurry and already have
experience with Kistler triaxial force transducers, you can
restrict yourself to the specific information needed.
We have endeavored to give these instructions a neat
layout to make it easy for you to gain direct access to the
information you require.
Please keep these instructions in a safe place where they
are always to hand.
If you lose these instructions, please contact your Kistler
customer service organization and you will receive a re-
placement by return.
All details and directions in these instructions are subject to
change at any time without prior notice.
2.5 What happens in the event of changes?
Equipment modifications will normally result in changes
to the instruction manual. In such cases, please contact
your Kistler customer service organization concerning
updating facilities for your documentation.

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 8 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
3. General description of the instrument
3.1 What is the purpose of a triaxial load cell?
The piezoelectric triaxial load cell is used for the dynamic
and quasistatic measurement of the three orthogonal
components of any force acting on the sensor (Fx/ Fyand
Fz).
Triaxial force transducers measure:
Cutting forces during machining
Impact forces in crash tests
Recoil forces of rocket engines
Vibration forces of components for space travel
Friction forces
Forces in product testing
Ground reaction forces in biomechanics
Vehicle forces on a road and a test stand
Forces on a wind tunnel balance
Cutting force measurement
Fig. 1: Grinding

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 8 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
3. General description of the instrument
3.1 What is the purpose of a triaxial load cell?
The piezoelectric triaxial load cell is used for the dynamic
and quasistatic measurement of the three orthogonal
components of any force acting on the sensor (Fx/ Fyand
Fz).
Triaxial force transducers measure:
Cutting forces during machining
Impact forces in crash tests
Recoil forces of rocket engines
Vibration forces of components for space travel
Friction forces
Forces in product testing
Ground reaction forces in biomechanics
Vehicle forces on a road and a test stand
Forces on a wind tunnel balance
Cutting force measurement
Fig. 1: Grinding
General description of the instrument
93x7C_002-893e-06.21 Page 9
Inertia force measurement
Fig. 2: Force Limited Vibration Testing on
satellites
Product testing
Fig. 3: Athletics sprint start optimization
Wheel force measurement
Fig. 4: Crash test
Impact force measurement
Fig. 5: Drop test installation for landing gears
Reaction force measurement
Fig. 6: Rocket motor static test range

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 10 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
3.2 Functional principle
The force sensor contains three pairs of quartz plates, of
which one is sensitive to pressure in the z direction and the
two others to shear forces in the x and y directions.
The type of sensitivity depends on the position of the cut
from the quartz blank. This means that the crystal lattice is
aligned differently at the atomic level and response in a
differing way to the direction of the applied force.
The quartz cut for measuring compressive force generates
a measurable charge in the case of an axial force, but is
insensitive to shear forces, whereas the shear quartz ring
show exactly the opposite reaction.
Fig. 7: Different position of the quartz cuts in the blank
As a result of an applied force, the virtual centres of the
positive and negative charge carriers in the crystal lattice
are shifted against each other, whereby an electrical charge
can be measured on the surface.
Fig. 8: Axial quartz and its reaction to vertical force

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 10 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
3.2 Functional principle
The force sensor contains three pairs of quartz plates, of
which one is sensitive to pressure in the z direction and the
two others to shear forces in the x and y directions.
The type of sensitivity depends on the position of the cut
from the quartz blank. This means that the crystal lattice is
aligned differently at the atomic level and response in a
differing way to the direction of the applied force.
The quartz cut for measuring compressive force generates
a measurable charge in the case of an axial force, but is
insensitive to shear forces, whereas the shear quartz ring
show exactly the opposite reaction.
Fig. 7: Different position of the quartz cuts in the blank
As a result of an applied force, the virtual centres of the
positive and negative charge carriers in the crystal lattice
are shifted against each other, whereby an electrical charge
can be measured on the surface.
Fig. 8: Axial quartz and its reaction to vertical force
General description of the instrument
93x7C_002-893e-06.21 Page 11
Fig. 9: Shear quartz and its reaction to a cross force
The force to be measured is introduced via a top plate and
distributed on the triaxial ring force transducer arranged
between top and base plates.
The force introduced is resolved into three orthogonal
components. Measurement takes place practically without
displacement.
Fig. 10: Triaxial piezoelectric force sensor
Positive or negative charges occur at the connections
depending on the direction of the force. Negative charges
produce positive voltages at the output of the charge
amplifier and vice versa.

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 12 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
4. Assembly, installation and initial start-up
4.1 Important notes
The triaxial force transducer is a precision instrument which
must be carefully handled if its inherent accuracy is to be
maintained in a useful state.
To measure the three components of a force vector the
load cell must be mounted on a foundation plate
(table). The force to be measured is normally applied
via a machine component. The latter has to be fixed
firmly to the load cell top plate.
The force transducer can be used as a single measuring
element or several of them with a common top plate
(force plate).
4.2 Mounting of Triaxial Force Sensors
The contact surfaces that transfer the forces onto the load
cell must be flat, rigid and clean.
The load cell can be fastened either from the outside or
inside.
Using the example of Type 9377C in Figure 8, the force
transducer can be fastened from the outside with four M16
screws each or from the inside with four M14 screws each
(and optionally an additional M16 screw).
Fig. 11: Example: Top plate mounting at a Type 9377C

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 12 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
4. Assembly, installation and initial start-up
4.1 Important notes
The triaxial force transducer is a precision instrument which
must be carefully handled if its inherent accuracy is to be
maintained in a useful state.
To measure the three components of a force vector the
load cell must be mounted on a foundation plate
(table). The force to be measured is normally applied
via a machine component. The latter has to be fixed
firmly to the load cell top plate.
The force transducer can be used as a single measuring
element or several of them with a common top plate
(force plate).
4.2 Mounting of Triaxial Force Sensors
The contact surfaces that transfer the forces onto the load
cell must be flat, rigid and clean.
The load cell can be fastened either from the outside or
inside.
Using the example of Type 9377C in Figure 8, the force
transducer can be fastened from the outside with four M16
screws each or from the inside with four M14 screws each
(and optionally an additional M16 screw).
Fig. 11: Example: Top plate mounting at a Type 9377C
Assembly, installation and initial start-up
93x7C_002-893e-06.21 Page 13
The screws must be tightened so that there is no gap
between the contact surfaces even at maximum force. The
recommended tightening torque and the thread sizes
required for fastening are given in the following table.
Recommended tightening torques for mounting screws
Triaxial
load cell
Type
Variant
Thread
Strength
class
acc. to
ISO 898/1
Tightening
torque
MA [N·m]
9317C Var. 1
M4
10.9
4.1
12.9
4.8
9327C
Var. 2
M5
10.9
8.1
12.9
9.5
Var. 1
M6
10.9
14
12.9
16
9347C
Var. 2
M6
10.9
14
12.9
16
Var. 1
M8
10.9
34
12.9
40
9367C
Var. 2
M8
10.9
34
12.9
40
Var. 1
M10
10.9
67
12.9
79
9377C
Var. 2
M14
10.9
185
12.9
220
Var. 1
M16
10.9
290
12.9
340
9397C Var. 1
M16
10.9
290
12.9
340

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 14 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
5. Measuring range/introduction of force
5.1 Triaxial Force Measurement using a Single 3 Axis Load Cell
The maximum measuring range of an individual preloaded
triaxial force sensor can only be utilized when the line of
action of the resulting force vector runs through
the center of the sensor, i.e. the origin of the coordinate
system.
If the line of action is outside the zero point, then a
moment is produced with regard to this zero point. The
quartz crystal experiences an unevenly distributed load.
The presence of moments reduces the force measuring
range accordingly.
Fig. 12: Multi-axis measuring system; the resultant force
vector is not leading through the center of the ring
force transducer
Force application
point

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 14 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
5. Measuring range/introduction of force
5.1 Triaxial Force Measurement using a Single 3 Axis Load Cell
The maximum measuring range of an individual preloaded
triaxial force sensor can only be utilized when the line of
action of the resulting force vector runs through
the center of the sensor, i.e. the origin of the coordinate
system.
If the line of action is outside the zero point, then a
moment is produced with regard to this zero point. The
quartz crystal experiences an unevenly distributed load.
The presence of moments reduces the force measuring
range accordingly.
Fig. 12: Multi-axis measuring system; the resultant force
vector is not leading through the center of the ring
force transducer
Force application
point
Measuring range/introduction of force
93x7C_002-893e-06.21 Page 15
When the force application point and the three
components of the resulting force are known, the active
moments can be calculated as follows:
Mx= FZp · ay– Fy· az
My= Fx· az– Fzp · ax
Mz= Fy· ax– Fx· ay
MB= 󰨙M+ M
When calculating the moments, it is essential to take into
account the plus or minus prefixes of both coordinates and
force components.
5.1.1 How to specify a piezoelectric ring force transducer
It is intended to install a triaxial force transducer type
9347C. The force application point of the process force is
known and estimates of the expected forces are available.
The triaxial force transducer is also loaded with moments
by the eccentric force application point.
All calculations here are standardized in %, based on the
nominal value of the respective size. This has the
advantage that the limit values to be specified can be
calculated with simple additions and subtractions.
Two rules apply:
()[%]+ [%]
+ [%][%]+ [%]
()[%]%×%([%]+ [%])
Explanations:
FZv: preload force applied by the pretension bolt
FZp: process force in z-direction, positive or negative
Fz: total force in z-direction (FZv & FZp)
Fx/ Fy: Shear force in x-direction/ y-direction
Fs: total shear force, vectorial sum of Fxand Fy
Mx/ My: bending moment in x-direction/ y-direction
MB: total bending moment, vectorial sum of Mxand My
**[_max]: maximum value of the corresponding measurand
(100% in the nomogram). Does not necessarily need to be
identical to the nominal value of the datasheet!
**[,lim]: highest allowed value of the corresponding
measurand dependent on the other acting forces and
moments

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 16 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
Fig. 13: generic Nomogram for graphical specifications
Fig.
14: Maximum values to be filled in the nomogram
2.5

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 16 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
Fig. 13: generic Nomogram for graphical specifications
Fig.
14: Maximum values to be filled in the nomogram
Measuring range/introduction of force
93x7C_002-893e-06.21 Page 17
Example:
Process data:
Forces Fx-1000 N
Fy10000 N
FZp 8’000 N
Application ax0.005 m
Coordinates ay0.008 m
az0 m
Calculations:
Load cell Type 9347C
Preload force FZv 70 kN
Moments Mx= FZp · ay– Fy· az= 64 N·m
My= Fx· az– FZp · ax= -40 N·m
Mz= Fy· ax– Fx· ay= 58 N·m
Resulting Forces/Moments:
FS= �Fx2+ Fy2= 10.05 N
MB= �Mx2+ My2= 75.5 N·m
Normalized Values (max values and FZv see Fig. 14)
FS[%] = FS/ FS_max = 10.05kN / 22k = 45.7%
FZp[%] = FZp / FZ_max = 8kN / 100kN = 8%
MB[%] = MB/ MB_max = 75.5Nm / 250Nm = 30.2%
Mz[%] = MZ/ MZ_max = 58Nm / 250Nm = 23.2%
FZv [%] = FZv / FZ_max = 70kN / 100kN = 70%

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 18 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
Mathematical method:
(1) The sum of the applied shear force FS[%], the torsional
moment MZ[%] and half the Bending moment MB[%]
has to be equal or lower than the force in z-direction
(FZv[%] + FZp[%])
(2) The bending moment MBshall not exceed the allowed
limit at the respective working point FZ
()[%]+ [%]
+ [%]≤[%]+ [%]
()[%]≤%−×�%−([%]+ [%])�
(1) 45.7% + 15.1% + 23.3% = 84.1% ≤70% + 8% = 78%
(2) 30.2% ≤100% - 2 x |50% - 78%| = 44%
(1) is not fulfilled: FS, MBor/and MZhave to be
reduced.
Graphical method:
1) The load FZ(sum of pre-load FZv and process force FZp)
defines the maximum bending and torsional moment
(MB, MZ), as well as the maximum shear force (FS) in
this operation point.
[%]=[%]+[%]= %
→ ,[%]= %−×|%−[%]| = %
→,[%]= %
→ ,[%]= %
Important: Shown on the left is how to find these 3 values
MB, MZand FSgraphically.
The respective limit can only be reached if the other
two values are zero!

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 18 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
Mathematical method:
(1) The sum of the applied shear force FS[%], the torsional
moment MZ[%] and half the Bending moment MB[%]
has to be equal or lower than the force in z-direction
(FZv[%] + FZp[%])
(2) The bending moment MBshall not exceed the allowed
limit at the respective working point FZ
()[%]+ [%]
+ [%]≤[%]+ [%]
()[%]≤%−×�%−([%]+ [%])�
(1) 45.7% + 15.1% + 23.3% = 84.1% ≤70% + 8% = 78%
(2) 30.2% ≤100% - 2 x |50% - 78%| = 44%
(1) is not fulfilled: FS, MBor/and MZhave to be
reduced.
Graphical method:
1) The load FZ(sum of pre-load FZv and process force FZp)
defines the maximum bending and torsional moment
(MB, MZ), as well as the maximum shear force (FS) in
this operation point.
[%]=[%]+[%]= %
→ ,[%]= %−×|%−[%]| = %
→,[%]= %
→ ,[%]= %
Important: Shown on the left is how to find these 3 values
MB, MZand FSgraphically.
The respective limit can only be reached if the other
two values are zero!
Measuring range/introduction of force
93x7C_002-893e-06.21 Page 19
2) The applied bending moment MB[30%] is within the
boundaries, but reduces the limit for FSand MZ.
[%]≤,[%]→%≤%
,[%]= [%]−[%]
=%
,[%]= ,[%]=%
c
c
o
o
n
n
d
d
i
i
t
t
i
i
o
o
n
n
:
:
[%]+[%]≤%
3) In order to fulfill rule (1), the horizontal rectangle
formed by the acting moments and the shear force
has to stay completely within the red limits.
- intersection A is within the allowed boundaries
- intersection B is outside of the allowed boundaries
so this sensor specification is NOT valid!
[%]+[%]=.% + .%≤ %
Solution:
- Reduce values of MB, MZand/or FS
- Choose a bigger sensor

Triaxial load cell Type 93x7C
Page 20 93x7C_002-893e-06.21
5.2 Triaxial force measurement using a Dynamometer
The configuration of a dynamometer consisting of four
triaxial ring force transducer with common base plate and
cover plate ensures the acting forces do not apply any
moments to the individual force sensor, which can
therefore be loaded to its maximum measuring range
defined for when it is free from moments.
However, a force – whose line of action does not pass
through the origin of coordinates (zero point) of a
dynamometer – produces a moment relative to this origin.
Moments Mxand Mysubject one particular sensor to an
additional load in the Fz-direction and the other sensors to
a reduced load in this direction. Moment Mzloads the
sensors in the Fx, Fyplane.
However, irrespective of the point of application of the
force the sum of the four sensors always indicates the
correct value.
For triaxial force measurement with a dynamometer
consisting of four triaxial ring force transducers the output
signals (Fx, Fyand Fzin each case) of the four sensors are
summed.
A
triaxial dynamometer measures

The magnitude and direction of the three
components of the forces acting on a dynamometer,
but not their spatial location.
Depending on the position of the point of application of the
force the load is either distributed between all four sensors
or an individual sensor can take most of the force. If the
force acts well outside the dynamometer, due to lever action
an individual sensor may be subjected to a multiple of the
force to be measured. For such applications the load on an
individual sensor must be accurately calculated.
Rule of thumb for the measuring range of a dynamometer:
If the point of application of the resultant force vector
lies within a pyramid formed by the surface of the cover
plate and having a height corresponding to the shorter
side of this plate, the maximum measuring range of an
individual force sensor applies to the entire plate.