Elenco Electronics EP-50 User manual

753057
Copyright © 1998 ElencoTM Electronics, Inc.
ELECTRONIC
PLAYGROUNDTM
and LEARNING CENTER
MODEL EP-50
ElencoTM Electronics, Inc.
Wheeling, IL, USA

-2-
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Definition of Terms Page 3
Answers to Quizzes 5
Introduction to Basic Components 6
Experiment #1: The Light Bulb 8
More About Resistors 10
Experiment #2: Brightness Control 11
Experiment #3: Resistors in Series 12
Experiment #4: Parallel Pipes 13
Experiment #4B: Comparison of Parallel Currents 14
Experiment #5: Combined Circuit 16
Experiment #6: Water Detector 17
Introduction to Capacitors 18
Experiment #7: Slow Light Bulb 20
Experiment #8: Small Dominates Large 21
Experiment #9: Large Dominates Small 22
Experiment #10: Make Your Own Battery 23
Test Your Knowledge #1 24
Introduction to Diodes 24
Experiment #11: One - Way Current 25
Experiment #12: One - Way Light Bulbs 26
Introduction to Transistors 27
Experiment #13: The Electronic Switch 28
Experiment #14: The Current Amplifier 29
Experiment #15: The Substitute 30
Experiment #16:
Standard Transistor Biasing Circuit 31
Experiment #17: Very Slow Light Bulb 32
Experiment #18: The Darlington 33
Experiment #19: The Finger Touch Lamp 34
Experiment #20: The Battery Immunizer 35
Experiment #21: The Voltmeter 36
Experiment #22: 1.5 Volt Battery Tester 38
Experiment #23: 9 Volt Battery Tester 39
Experiment #24: The Anti-Capacitor 40
Introduction to Inductors and Transformers 42
Test Your Knowledge #2 43
Experiment #25: The Magnetic Bridge 44
Experiment #26: The Lighthouse 45
Experiment #27: Electronic Sound 46
Experiment #28: The Alarm 48
Experiment #29: Morse Code 49
Experiment #30: Siren 50
Experiment #31: Electronic Rain 51
Experiment #32: The Space Gun 52
Experiment #33: Electronic Noisemaker 53
Experiment #34: Drawing Resistors 54
Experiment #35: Electronic Kazoo 56
Experiment #36: Electronic Keyboard 57
Experiment #37: Fun with Water 58
Experiment #38: Transistor Radio 60
Experiment #39: Radio Announcer 62
Experiment #40: Radio Jammer / Metal Detector 63
Experiment #41: Blinking Lights 64
Experiment #42: Noisy Blinker 65
Experiment #43: One Shot 66
Experiment #44: Alarm With Shut - Off Timer 67
Experiment #45: The Flip - Flop 68
Experiment #46: Finger Touch Lamp With Memory 69
Experiment #47: This OR That 70
Experiment #48: Neither This NOR That 71
Experiment #49: This AND That 72
Experiment #50: Audio NAND, AND 73
Experiment #51: Logic Combination 74
Test Your Knowledge #3 75
Troubleshooting Guide 75
For Further Reading 75

-3-
DEFINITION OF TERMS
(Most of these will be introduced and explained during the experiments).
AC Common abbreviation for
alternating current.
Alternating Current A current that is constantly
changing.
AM Amplitude modulation. The
amplitude of the radio signal is
varied depending on the
information being sent.
Amp Shortened name for ampere.
Ampere (A) The unit of measure for electric
current. Commonly shortened
to amp.
Amplitude Strength or level of something.
Analogy A similarity in some ways.
AND Gate A type of digital circuit which
gives a HIGH output only if all
of its inputs are HIGH.
Antenna Inductors used for sending or
receiving radio signals.
Astable Multivibrator A type of transistor
configuration in which only one
transistor is on at a time.
Atom The smallest particle of a
chemical element, made up of
electrons, protons, etc.
Audio Electrical energy representing
voice or music.
Base The controlling input of an NPN
bipolar junction transistor.
Battery A device which uses a
chemical reaction to create an
electric charge across a
material.
Bias The state of the DC voltages
across a diode or transistor.
Bipolar Junction
Transistor (BJT) A widely used type of transistor.
Bistable Switch A type of transistor
configuration, also known as
the flip-flop.
BJT Common abbreviation for
Bipolar Junction Transistor.
Capacitance The ability to store electric
charge.
Capacitor An electrical component that
can store electrical pressure
(voltage) for periods of time.
Carbon A chemical element used to
make resistors.
Clockwise In the direction in which the
hands of a clock rotate.
Coil When something is wound in a
spiral. In electronics this
describes inductors, which are
coiled wires.
Collector The controlled input of an NPN
bipolar junction transistor.
Color Code A method for marking resistors
using colored bands.
Conductor A material that has low
electrical resistance.
Counter-Clockwise Opposite the direction in which
the hands of a clock rotate.
Current A measure of how fast
electrons are flowing in a wire
or how fast water is flowing in a
pipe.
Darlington A transistor configuration which
has high current gain and input
resistance.
DC Common abbreviation for direct
current.
Decode To recover a message.
Detector A device or circuit which finds
something.
Diaphragm A flexible wall.
Differential Pair A type of transistor
configuration.
Digital Circuit A wide range of circuits in
which all inputs and outputs
have only two states, such as
high/low.
Diode An electronic device that allows
current to flow in only one
direction.
Direct Current A current that is constant and
not changing.
Disc Capacitor A type of capacitor that has low
capacitance and is used mostly
in high frequency circuits.
Electric Field The region of electric attraction
or repulsion around a constant
voltage. This is usually
associated with the dielectric in
a capacitor.
Electricity A flow of electrons between
atoms due to an electrical
charge across the material.
Electrolytic Capacitor A type of capacitor that has
high capacitance and is used
mostly in low frequency
circuits. It has polarity
markings.

Electron A sub-atomic particle that has
an electrical charge.
Electronics The science of electricity and
its applications.
Emitter The output of an NPN bipolar
junction transistor.
Encode To put a message into a format
which is easier to transmit.
Farad, (F) The unit of measure for
capacitance.
Feedback To adjust the input to
something based on what its
output is doing.
Flip-Flop A type of transistor
configuration is which the
output changes every time it
receives an input pulse.
FM Frequency modulation. The
frequency of the radio signal is
varied depending on the
information being sent.
Forward-Biased The state of a diode when
current is flowing through it.
Frequency The rate at which something
repeats.
Friction The rubbing of one object
against another. It generates
heat.
Gallium Arsenide A chemical element that is
used as a semiconductor.
Generator A device which uses steam or
water pressure to move a
magnet near a wire, creating an
electric current in the wire.
Germanium A chemical element that is
used as a semiconductor.
Ground A common term for the 0V or
“–” side of a battery or
generator.
Henry (H) The unit of measure for
Inductance.
Inductance
The ability of a wire to create an
induced voltage when the current
varies, due to magnetic effects.
Inductor A component that opposes
changes in electrical current.
Insulator A material that has high
electrical resistance.
Integrated Circuit A type of circuit in which
transistors, diodes, resistors,
and capacitors are all
constructed on a
semiconductor base.
Kilo- (K) A prefix used in the metric
system. It means a thousand of
something.
LED Common abbreviation for light
emitting diode.
Light Emitting Diode A diode made from gallium
arsenide that has a turn-on
energy so high that light is
generated when current flows
through it.
Magnetic Field The region of magnetic
attraction or repulsion around a
magnet or an AC current. This
is usually associated with an
inductor or transformer.
Magnetism A force of attraction between
certain metals. Electric
currents also have magnetic
properties.
Meg- (M) A prefix used in the metric
system. It means a million of
something.
Micro- (m
m) A prefix used in the metric
system. It means a millionth
(0.000,001) of something.
Microphone A device which converts sound
waves into electrical energy.
Milli- (m) A prefix used in the metric
system. It means a thousandth
(0.001) of something.
Modulation Methods used for encoding
radio signals with information.
Momentum The power of a moving object.
Morse Code A code used to send messages
with long or short transmit
bursts.
NAND Gate A type of digital circuit which
gives a HIGH output if some of
its inputs are LOW.
NOR Gate A type of digital circuit which
gives a HIGH output if none of
its inputs are HIGH.
NOT Gate A type of digital circuit whose
output is opposite its input.
NPN Negative-Positive-Negative, a
type of transistor construction.
Ohm’s Law
The relationship between
voltage, current, and resistance.
Ohm, (W
W) The unit of measure for
resistance.
OR Gate A type of digital circuit which
gives a HIGH output if any of its
inputs are HIGH.
Oscillator A circuit that uses feedback to
generate an AC output.
Parallel When several electrical
components are connected
between the same points in the
circuit.
-4-

Pico- (p) A prefix used in the metric
system. It means a millionth of
a millionth (0.000,000,000,001)
of something.
Pitch The musical term for frequency.
Printed Circuit Board A board used for mounting
electrical components.
Components are connected
using metal traces “printed” on
the board instead of wires.
Receiver The device which is receiving a
message (usually with radio).
Resistance The electrical friction between
an electric current and the
material it is flowing through;
the loss of energy from
electrons as they move
between atoms of the material.
Resistor Components used to control
the flow of electricity in a circuit.
They are made of carbon.
Resistor-Transistor-
Logic (RTL) A type of circuit arrangement
used to construct digital gates.
Reverse-Biased When there is a voltage in the
direction of high-resistance
across a diode.
Saturation The state of a transistor when
the circuit resistances, not the
transistor itself, are limiting
the current.
Schematic A drawing of an electrical circuit
that uses symbols for all the
components.
Semiconductor A material that has more
resistance than conductors but
less than insulators. It is used
to construct diodes, transistors,
and integrated circuits.
Series When electrical components
are connected one after the
other.
Short Circuit When wires from different parts
of a circuit (or different circuits)
connect accidentally.
Silicon The chemical element most
commonly used as a
semiconductor.
Solder A tin-lead metal that becomes a
liquid when heated to above
360 degrees. In addition to
having low resistance like other
metals, solder also provides a
strong mounting that can
withstand shocks.
Speaker A device which converts
electrical energy into sound.
Switch A device to connect (“closed” or
“on”) or disconnect (“open” or
“off”) wires in an electric circuit.
Transformer A device which uses two coils
to change the AC voltage and
current (increasing one while
decreasing the other).
Transient Temporary. Used to describe
DC changes to circuits.
Transistor An electronic device that uses
a small amount of current to
control a large amount of
current.
Transmitter The device which is sending a
message (usually with radio).
Truth Table A table which lists all the
possible combinations of inputs
and outputs for a digital circuit.
Tungsten A highly resistive material used
in light bulbs.
Tuning Capacitor A capacitor whose value is
varied by rotating conductive
plates over a dielectric.
Variable Resistor A resistor with an additional
arm contact that can move
along the resistive material and
tap off the desired resistance.
Voltage A measure of how strong an
electric charge across a
material is.
Voltage Divider A resistor configuration to
create a lower voltage.
Volts (V) The unit of measure for voltage.
-5-
QUIZ ANSWERS
First Quiz: 1. electrons; 2. short; 3. battery; 4. increase; 5. insulators, conductors; 6. decreases, increases; 7. decreases;
8. voltage; 9. alternating, direct; 10. increases, decreases.
Second Quiz: 1. reverse; 2. LEDs; 3. amplifier; 4. integrated; 5. saturated; 6. alternating, direct; 7. decreases, increases;
8. magnetic; 9. increases; 10. twice
Third Quiz: 1. feedback; 2. air, pressure; 3. decreases; 4. radio; 5. inductors; 6. OR; 7. NAND

-6-
INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COMPONENTS
Welcome to the exciting world of Electronics! Before
starting the first experiment, let’s learn about some of the
basic electronic components. Electricity is a flow of sub-
atomic (very, very, very, small) particles, called
electrons. The electrons move from atom to atom when
an electrical charge is applied across the material.
Electronics will be easier to understand if you think of the
flow of electricity through circuits as water flowing
through pipes (this will be referred to as the water pipe
analogy).
Wires: Wires can be thought of as large, smooth pipes
that allow water to pass through easily. Wires are made
of metals, usually copper, that offer very low resistance to
the flow of electricity. When wires from different parts of
a circuit connect accidentally we have a short circuit or
simply a short. You probably know from the movies that
this usually means trouble. You must always make sure
that the metal from different wires never touches except
at springs where the wires are connecting to each other.
The electric current, expressed in amperes (A, named
after Andre Ampere who studied the relationship
between electricity and magnetism) or milliamps (mA,
1/1000 of an ampere), is a measure of how fast electrons
are flowing in a wire just as a water current describes
how fast water is flowing in a pipe.
The Battery: To make water flow through a pipe we need
a pump. To make electricity flow through wires we use a
battery or a generator to create an electrical charge
across the wires. A battery does this by using a chemical
reaction and has the advantage of being simple, small,
and portable. If you move a magnet near a wire then
electricity will flow in the wire. This is done in a generator.
The electric power companies have enormous
generators driven by steam or water pressure to produce
electricity for your home.
The voltage, expressed in volts (V, and named after
Alessandro Volta who invented the battery in 1800), is a
measure of how strong the electric charge from your
battery or generator is, similar to the water pressure.
Your Electronic Playground uses a 9V battery. Notice the
“+” and “–” signs on the battery. These indicate which
direction the battery will “pump” the electricity, similarly to
how a water pump can only pump water in one direction.
The 0V or “–” side of the battery is often referred to as
“ground”. Notice that just to the right of the battery
pictured below is a symbol, the same symbol you see
next to the battery holder. Engineers are not very good
at drawing pictures of their parts, so when engineers
draw pictures of their circuits they use symbols like this to
represent them. It also takes less time to draw and takes
up less space on the page. Note that wires are
represented simply by lines on the page.
The Switch: Since you don’t want to waste water when
you are not using it, you have a faucet or valve to turn the
water on and off. Similarly, you use a switch to turn the
electricity on and off in your circuit. A switch connects
(the “closed” or “on” position) or disconnects (the “open”
or “off” position) the wires in your circuit. As with the
battery, the switch is represented by a symbol, shown
below on the right.
Pipe
Wire
Water
Pump Battery
Symbol for
Battery
(+)
9V
(–)
Valve
Switch
Symbol for Switch

The Resistor:Why is the water pipe that goes to your
kitchen faucet smaller than the one that comes to your
house from the water company? And why is it much
smaller than the main water line that supplies water to
your entire town? Because you don’t need so much
water. The pipe size limits the water flow to what you
actually need. Electricity works in a similar manner,
except that wires have so little resistance that they would
have to be very, very thin to limit the flow of electricity.
They would be hard to handle and break easily. But the
water flow through a large pipe could also be limited by
filling a section of the pipe with rocks (a thin screen would
keep the rocks from falling over), which would slow the
flow of water but not stop it. Resistors are like rocks for
electricity, they control how much electric current flows.
The resistance, expressed in ohms (W, named after
George Ohm), kilohms (KW, 1000 ohms), or megohms
(MW, 1,000,000 ohms) is a measure of how much a
resistor resists the flow of electricity. To increase the
water flow through a pipe you can increase the water
pressure or use less rocks. To increase the electric
current in a circuit you can increase the voltage or use a
lower value resistor (this will be demonstrated in a
moment). The symbol for the resistor is shown on the
right.
Rocks in Pipe Resistor Resistor Symbol
-7-

EXPERIMENT #1: The Light Bulb
First, you need a 9V battery (alkaline is best). Fold out
the the battery holder cutouts and snap the battery into
its clip. Always remove the battery from its clip if you
won’t be using your Playground for a while.
Your Electronic Playground consists of electronic parts
connected to springs and mounted on a cardboard panel.
You will use wires to connect these springs together to
form a circuit. You are provided with several different
lengths of wires, and it is usually best to use the shortest
length of wire that comfortably reaches between two
springs so that your wiring appears less confusing and
easier to check. Notice that each spring has a number
next to it. For each circuit we will tell you the spring
numbers to connect in order to build the circuit. And as
you build each circuit you will slowly learn more and more
about electronics.
Enough talk, let’s start building your first circuit. To
connect a wire to a spring, bend the spring back to one
side with one finger and slip the metal end of the wire into
the spring; let go of the spring and it should clamp the
wire firmly in place. Tug lightly on the wire to make sure
you have a secure connection. And be sure the spring
touches the metal portion of the wire, the colored plastic
insulation doesn’t count. To remove a wire, bend the
spring and pull the wire away. When you have two or
more wires connecting to the same spring, make sure
that one wire does not come loose while you connect the
others. This will be easier if you connect the wires on
different sides of the spring.
12 3
-8-
Now connect the wires for this circuit
according to the list below, which we’ll call
the Wiring Checklist. When you’re
finished your wiring should look like the
diagram shown here:
Wiring Checklist:
o27-to-56
o55-to-45
o44-to-3
o4-to-26
Be sure all your wires are securely in
place and not loose. Also make sure the
metal in the wires is only touching the
spring and wires that it is connected to,
and not to any nearby springs or other
wires.

-9-
Press the switch (next to springs 55 and 56) and the LED
(light emitting diode) lights up, and turns off when you
release the switch. The LED converts electrical energy
into light, like the light bulbs in your home. You can also
think of an LED as being like a simple water meter, since
as the electric current increases in a wire the LED
becomes brighter. It is shown here, with its symbol.
Take a look at the water diagram that follows. It shows
the flow of water from the pump through the faucet, the
small pipe, the water meter, the large pipes, and back to
the pump. Now compare it to the electrical diagram next
to it, called a schematic. Schematics are the “maps” for
electronic circuits and are used by all electronic
designers and technicians on everything from your
Electronic Playground to the most advanced
supercomputers. They show the flow of electricity from
the battery through the switch, the resistor, the LED, the
wires, and back to the battery. They also use the symbols
for the battery, switch, resistor, and LED that we talked
about. Notice how small and simple the schematic looks
compared to the water diagram; that is why we use it.
Now you will see how changing the resistance in the
circuit increases the current through it. Press the switch
again and observe the brightness of the LED. Now
remove the wires from the 10KWresistor (springs 44 and
45) and connect them to the 1KWresistor (springs 40 and
41). Press the switch. The LED is brighter now, do you
understand why? We are using a lower resistance (less
rocks), so there is more electrical current flowing (more
water flows), so the LED is brighter. Now replace the
1KWresistor with the 100KWresistor (springs 51 and 52)
and press the switch again. The LED will be on but will
be very dim (this will be easier to see if you wrap your
hand near the LED to keep the room lights from shining
on it).
Well done! You’ve just built YOUR first electronic circuit!
Water Meter LED Symbol for LED
Water Diagram
On/Off
Valve
Water
Meter
Rocks
Pump
Schematic

Ohm’s Law: You just observed that when you have less
resistance in the circuit, more current flows (making the
LED brighter). The relationship between voltage, current,
and resistance is known as Ohm’s Law (after George
Ohm who discovered it in 1828):
Current =
Resistance: Just what is Resistance? Take your hands
and rub them together very fast.Your hands should feel
warm. The friction between your hands converts your
effort into heat. Resistance is the electrical friction
between an electric current and the material it is flowing
through; it is the loss of energy from electrons as they
move between atoms of the material. Resistors are
made using carbon and can be constructed with different
resistive values, such as the seven parts included in your
Electronic Playground. If a large amount of current is
passed through a resistor then it will become warm due
to the electrical friction. Light bulbs use a small piece of
a highly resistive material called tungsten. Enough
current is passed through this tungsten to heat it until it
glows white hot, producing light. Metal wires have some
electrical resistance, but it is very low (less than 1Wper
foot) and can be ignored in almost all circuits. Materials
such as metals which have low resistance are called
conductors. Materials such as paper, plastic, and air
have extremely high values of resistance and are called
insulators.
Resistor Color Code: You may have seen the colored
bands on the resistors and may be wondering what they
mean. They are the method for marking the value of
resistance on the part. The first ring represents the first
digit of the resistor’s value. The second ring represents
the second digit of the resistor’s value. The third ring tells
you the power of ten to multiply by, (or the number of
zeros to add). The final and fourth ring represents the
construction tolerance. Most resistors have a gold band
for a 5% tolerance. This means the value of the resistor
is guaranteed to be within 5% of the value marked. The
colors below are used to represent the numbers 0
through 9.
Use the color code to check the values of the seven
resistors included in your Electronic Playground. (The
values are marked next to them on the box). They are all
5% tolerance.
The Variable Resistor:We talked about how a switch is
used to turn the electricity on and off just like a valve is
used to turn the water on and off. But there are many
times when you want some water but don’t need all that
the pipe can deliver, so you control the water by adjusting
an opening in the pipe with a faucet. Unfortunately, you
can’t adjust the thickness of an already thin wire. But you
could also control the water flow by forcing the water
through an adjustable length of rocks, as in the rock arm
shown below.
In electronics we use a variable resistor. This is a normal
resistor (50KWin your Playground) with an additional arm
contact that can move along the resistive material and
tap off the desired resistance.
There is a scale printed next to the dial on the variable
resistor which shows the percentage of the total
resistance that is between springs 49 and 50. The
remaining resistance will be between springs 48 and 49.
The resistance between springs 48 and 50 will always be
50KW, the total resistance.
Now let’s demonstrate how this works.
MORE ABOUT RESISTORS
-10-
Example of Color Code
OrangeRed
Violet Gold
27 X 103 = 27,000 W,
with 5% Tolerance
COLOR VALUE
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Gray 8
White 9
Rock Arm
Variable Resistor
Insulating Base Material
Wiper Contact
Thin Layer of
Resistive
Material
Stationary
Contact
Movable
Arm
Leads
Variable
Resistor Symbol for Variable
Resistor
Voltage
Resistance

-11-
Connect the wires according to the Wiring Checklist.
Press the switch and the LED lights up. Now hold the
switch closed with one hand and turn the dial on the
variable resistor with the other. When the dial setting is
high, the resistance in the circuit is low and the LED is
bright because a large current flows. As you turn the dial
lower the resistance increases and the LED will become
dim, just as forcing the water through a section of rocks
would slow the water flow and lower the reading on your
water meter.
You may be wondering what the 1KWresistor is doing in
the circuit. If you set the dial on the variable resistor for
minimum resistance (0W) then Ohm’s Law tells us the
current will be very large - and it might damage the LED
(think of this as a very powerful water pump overloading
a water meter). So the 1KWwas put in to limit the current
while having little effect on the brightness of the LED.
Now remove the wire from spring 48 and connect it to
spring 50 (use a longer wire if necessary). Do you know
what will happen now? Close the switch and you will see
that as you turn the dial from 0 to 100 the LED goes from
very bright to very dim, because you are increasing the
resistance between springs 49 and 50.
Now remove the wire from spring 49 and connect it to
spring 48. What do you think will happen? Close the
switch and turn the dial. The LED is dim and turning the
resistor dial won’t make it any brighter. As discussed
above, the resistance between 48 and 50 is always 50KW
and the part acts just like one of the other resistors in
your Electronic Playground.
Variable resistors like this one are used in the light
dimmers you may have in your house, and are also used
to control the volume in your radio, your TV, and many
electronic devices.
EXPERIMENT #2: The Brightness Control
Wiring Checklist:
o27-to-56
o55-to-40
o41-to-48
o49-to-3
o4-to-26
Water Diagram
On/Off
Valve
Water
Meter
Rocks
Pump
Schematic
Rock Arm

-12-
Connect the wires according to the Wiring Checklist and
press the switch. The LED is on but is very dim (this will
be easier to see if you wrap your hand near the LED to
keep the room lights from shining on it). Take a look at
the schematic. There is a low 3.3KWresistor and a high
100KWresistor in series (one after another). Since the
LED is dimly lit, we know that the larger 100KWmust be
controlling the current. You can think of this as where two
sections of the pipe are filled with rock, if one section is
much longer than the other then it controls the water flow.
If you had several rock sections of different lengths then
it is easy to see that these would add together as if they
were one longer section. The total length is what matters,
not how many sections the rock is split into. The same is
true in electronics - resistors in series add together to
increase the total resistance for the circuit. (In our circuit
the 3.3KW and 100KW resistors add up to 103.3KW).
To demonstrate this, disconnect the wires from the
100KWresistor and connect them instead to the 10KW,
press the switch; the LED should be easy to see now
(total resistance is now only 13.3KW). Next, disconnect
the 10KWresistor and connect the 1KW in its place. The
LED is now bright, but not as bright as when you used the
1KWin Experiment #1. Why? Because now the 3.3KW
is the larger resistor (total resistance is 4.3KW).
Also, in Experiment #2 you saw how the 1KWresistor
would dominate the circuit when the variable resistor was
set for 0Wand how the variable resistor would dominate
when set for 50KW.
EXPERIMENT #3: Resistors in Series
Wiring Checklist:
o27-to-56
o55-to-42
o43-to-51
o52-to-3
o4-to-26
Water Diagram
On/Off
Valve
Water
Meter
Rocks
Pump
Schematic

-13-
Connect the wires according to the Wiring Checklist.
Take a look at the schematic. There is a low 3.3KW
resistor and a high 100KWresistor in parallel (connected
between the same points in the circuit). How bright do
you think the LED will be? Press the switch and see if
you are right. The LED is bright, so most of the current
must be flowing through the smaller 3.3KWresistor. This
makes perfect sense when we look at the water diagram,
with most of the water flowing through the pipe with less
rocks. In general, the more water pipes (or resistors)
there are in parallel, the lower the total resistance is
and the more water (or current) will flow. The relationship
is more complicated than for resistors in series and is
given here for advanced students:
RParallel =
For two 10KWresistors in parallel, the result would be
5KW. The 3.3KWand 100KWin parallel in our circuit now
give the same LED brightness as a single 3.2KWresistor.
To demonstrate this, disconnect the wires from the
100KWresistor and connect them to the 10KW; press the
switch and the LED should be just as bright. The total
resistance is now only 2.5KW, but your eyes probably
won’t notice much difference in LED brightness. Now
disconnect the wires from the 10KWand connect them to
the 1KW; press the switch. The total resistance is now
only 770W, so the LED should now be much brighter.
EXPERIMENT #4: Parallel Pipes
R1x R2
R1+ R2
Wiring Checklist:
o27-to-56
o55-to-52-to-43 (this will take 2 wires)
o51-to-42-to-3 (2 wires)
o4-to-26
Water Diagram
On/Off
Valve
Water
Meter
Rocks
Pump
Schematic
Rocks

Since we have two resistors in parallel and a second LED
that is not being used, let’s modify the circuit to match the
schematic below. It’s basically the same circuit but
instead of just parallel resistors there are parallel resistor-
LED circuits. Disconnect the wire between 51 (the
100KWresistor) and 42 (the 3.3KWresistor) and connect
it between 51 and 1 (LED1) instead (you may need a
longer wire). Add a wire from 2 (LED1) to 4 (LED2).
Replace the 100KWresistor with several values as before
(such as 1KW, 10KW, and others if you wish), pressing
the switch and observing the LEDs each time. The
brightness of LED2 will not change, but the brightness of
LED1 will depend on the resistor value you placed in
series with it.
EXPERIMENT #4B: Comparison of Parallel Currents
-14-
There is an even easier way to explain this:
Wiring Checklist:
o27-to-56
o55-to-52-to-43 (2 wires)
o51-to-1
o42-to-3
o2-to-4-to-26 (2 wires)
Water Diagram
On/Off
Valve
Water
Meter
Rocks
Pump
Schematic
Rocks
Water
Meter

-15-
Let’s combine everything we’ve done so far. Connect the
wires according to the Wiring Checklist. Before pressing
the switch, take a look at the schematic and think about
what will happen as you turn the dial on the variable
resistor (we’ll abbreviate this to VR). Now press the
switch with one hand and turn the dial with the other to
see if you were right. As you turn the VR dial from right
to left LED1 will go from bright to very dim and LED2 will
go from visible to off.
What’s happening is this: With the dial turned all the way
to the right the VR is 0W(much smaller than the 10KW)
so nearly all of the current passing through the 3.3KWwill
take the VR-LED1 path and very little will take the 10KW-
LED2 path. When the VR dial is turned to 80% the VR is
10KW(same as the other path) and the current flowing
through the 3.3KWwill divide equally between the two
LED paths (making them equally bright). As the VR dial
is turned to the left the VR becomes a 50KW(much larger
than the 10KW) and LED1 will become dim while LED2
gets brighter.
Now is a good time to take notes on how resistors work
in series and in parallel. All electronic circuits are much
larger combinations of series and parallel circuits such as
these. It’s important to understand these ideas because
soon we’ll apply them to capacitors and inductors!
EXPERIMENT #5: Combined Circuit
Wiring Checklist:
o27-to-56
o55-to-43
o44-to-42-to-48
o49-to-1
o45-to-3
o2-to-4-to-26
Water Diagram
On/Off
Valve
Water
Meter
Rocks
Pump
Schematic
Rocks
Water
Meter

You’ve seen how electricity flows through copper wires
easily and how carbon resists the flow. How well does
water pass electricity? Let’s find out.
Connect the wires according to the Wiring Checklist and
take a look at the schematic. There isn’t a switch this
time, so just disconnect one of the wires if you want to
turn the circuit off. Notice that the Wiring Checklist leaves
2 wires unconnected. The LED will be off initially (if you
touch the two loose wires together then it will be on).
Now take a small cup (make sure it isn’t made of metal),
fill it half way with water, and place the two unconnected
wires into the water without touching each other. The
LED should now be dimly lit, but the brightness could
vary depending on your local water quality. You are now
seeing a demonstration of how water conducts (passes)
electricity. (A small cup of water like this may be around
100KW, but depends on the local water quality). Try
adding more water to the cup and see if the LED
brightness changes (it should get brighter because we
are “making the water pipe larger”). Since the LED only
lights when it is in water now, you could use this circuit as
a water detector!
Now adjust the amount of water so that the LED is dimly
lit. Now, watching the LED brightness, add some table
salt to the water and stir to dissolve the salt. The LED
should become brighter because water has a lower
electrical resistance when salt is dissolved in it. Looking
at the water pipe diagram, you can think of this as a
strong cleaner dissolving paintballs that are mixed in with
the rocks. You could even use this circuit to detect salt
water like in the ocean!
EXPERIMENT #6: Water Detector
Wiring Checklist:
o27-to-41
o40-to-39
o44-to-42-to-38-to-3
o4-to-unconnected
(use a long wire)
o26-to-45-to-43-to-
unconnected
(the unconnected
wire should be long)
Water Diagram
On/Off
Valve
Rocks
and
Paintballs
Rocks
Pump
Schematic
Rocks
Rocks
Water
Meter
-16-
Long
Wire to
Water
Long
Wire to
Water

-17-
Capacitors: Capacitors are electrical components that
can store electrical pressure (voltage) for periods of time.
When a capacitor has a difference in voltage (electrical
pressure) across it, it is said to be charged. A capacitor
is charged by having a one-way current flow through it for
a short period of time. It can be discharged by letting a
current flow in the opposite direction out of the capacitor.
In the water pipe analogy, you may think of the capacitor
as a water pipe that has a strong rubber diaphragm
sealing off each side of the pipe as shown below:
If the pipe had a plunger on one end (or a pump
elsewhere in the piping circuit), as shown above, and the
plunger was pushed toward the diaphragm, the water in
the pipe would force the rubber to stretch out until the
force of the rubber pushing back on the water was equal
to the force of the plunger. You could say the pipe is
charged and ready to push the plunger back. In fact if the
plunger is released it will move back to its original
position. The pipe will then be discharged or with no
pressure on the diaphragm.
Capacitors act the same as the pipe just described.
When a voltage (electrical pressure) is placed on one
side with respect to the other, electrical charge “piles up”
on one side of the capacitor (on the capacitor “plates”)
until the voltage pushing back equals the voltage applied.
The capacitor is then charged to that voltage. If the
charging voltage was then decreased the capacitor
would discharge. If both sides of the capacitor were
connected together with a wire then the capacitor would
rapidly discharge and the voltage across it would become
zero (no charge).
What would happen if the plunger in the drawing above
was wiggled in and out many times each second? The
water in the pipe would be pushed by the diaphragm and
then sucked back by the diaphragm. Since the
movement of the water (current) is back and forth
(alternating) it is called an alternating current or AC.
The capacitor will therefore pass an alternating current
with little resistance. When the push on the plunger was
only toward the diaphragm, the water on the other side of
the diaphragm moved just enough to charge the pipe (a
transient or temporary current). Just as the pipe blocked
a direct push, a capacitor blocks a direct current (DC).
Current from a battery is an example of direct current. An
example of alternating current is the 60 cycle (60 wiggles
per second) current from the electrical outlets in the walls
of your house.
Construction of Capacitors: If the rubber diaphragm is
made very soft it will stretch out and hold a lot of water
but will break easily (large capacitance but low working
voltage). If the rubber is made very stiff it will not stretch
far but will be able to withstand higher pressure (low
capacitance but high working voltage). By making the
pipe larger and keeping the rubber stiff we can achieve a
device that holds a lot of water and withstands high
pressure (high capacitance, high working voltage, large
size). So the pipe size is determined by its capacity to
hold water and the amount of pressure it can handle.
These three types of water pipes are shown below:
INTRODUCTION TO CAPACITORS
Pipe Filled with Water
Rubber Diaphragm
Sealing Center of Pipe
Plunger
A Rubber Diaphragm in a Pipe is Like a Capacitor
Soft Rubber
Types of Water Pipes
Stiff Rubber
Stiff Rubber
Large Capacity
Low Pressure
Low Capacity
but can withstand
High Pressure
High Capacity and can withstand High Pressure

Similarly, capacitors are described by their capacity for
holding electric charge, called their Capacitance, and
their ability to withstand electric pressure (voltage)
without damage. Although there are many different types
of capacitors made using many different materials, their
basic construction is the same. The wires (leads)
connect to two or more metal plates that are separated
by high resistance materials called dielectrics.
The dielectric is the material that holds the electric
charge (pressure), just like the rubber diaphragm holds
the water pressure. Some dielectrics may be thought of
as stiff rubber, and some as soft rubber. The capacitance
and working voltage of the capacitor is controlled by
varying the number and size of metal-dielectric layers,
the thickness of the dielectric layers, and the type of
dielectric material used.
Capacitance is expressed in farads (F, named after
Michael Faraday whose work in electromagnetic
induction led to the development of today’s electric
motors and generators), or more commonly in
microfarads (mF, millionths of a farad) or picofarads (pF,
millionths of a microfarad). Almost all capacitors used in
electronics vary from 1pF to 1000mF.
Your Electronic Playground includes two electrolytic
(10mF and 100mF) and two disc (.0047mF and .047mF)
capacitors. (Mylar capacitors may have been substituted
for the disc ones, their construction and performance is
similar). Electrolytic capacitors (usually referred to as
lytics) are high capacitance and are used mostly in power
supply or low frequency circuits. Their capacitance and
voltage are usually clearly marked on them. Note that
these parts have “+” and “–” polarity (orientation)
markings, the lead marked “+” should always be
connected to a higher voltage than the “–” lead (all of your
Wiring Checklists account for this). Disc capacitors are
low capacitance and are used mostly in radio or high
frequency applications. They don’t have voltage or
polarity markings (they can be hooked up either way).
Capacitors have symbols as follows:
-18-
Construction of a Capacitor
Lead 1
Dielectric
Metal Plate
Lead 2
Soft Diaphragm Symbol for
Electrolytic
Capacitor
(–) (+)
Electrolytic Capacitor
Disc Capacitor
Stiff Diaphragm Symbol for
Disc
Capacitor

-19-
Connect the wires according to the Wiring Checklist and
press the switch several times. You can see it takes time
to charge and discharge the large capacitor because the
LED lights up and goes dim slowly. Replace the 3.3KW
resistor with the 1KWresistor; now the charge time is
faster but the discharge time is the same. Do you know
why? When the switch is closed the battery charges the
capacitor through the 1KWresistor and when the switch
is opened the capacitor discharges through the 10KW,
which has remained the same. Now replace the 100mF
capacitor with the 10mF. Both the charge and discharge
times are now faster since there is less capacitance to
charge up. If you like you may experiment with different
resistors in place of the 1KWand 10KW. If you observe
the LED carefully, you might start to suspect the
relationship between the component values and the
charging and discharging times - the charge/discharge
times are proportional to both the capacitance and
the resistance in the charge/discharge path!
A simple circuit like this is used to slowly light or darken
a room, such as a movie theater.
EXPERIMENT #7: Slow Light Bulb
Wiring Checklist:
o27-to-56
o55-to-43
o36-to-44-to-42
o45-to-3
o37-to-26-to-4
Water Diagram
On/Off
Valve
Rubber
Diaphragm
Rocks
Pump
Schematic
Rocks Water
Meter

-20-
Take a look at the schematic, it is almost the same circuit
as the last experiment except that now there are two
capacitors in series. What do you think will happen?
Connect the wires according to the Wiring Checklist and
press the switch several times to see if you are right.
Looking at the water diagram and the name of this
experiment should have made it clear - the smaller 10mF
will dominate (control) the response since it will take less
time to charge up. As with resistors, you could change
the order of the two capacitors and would still get the
same results (try this if you like). Notice that while
resistors in series add together to make a larger circuit
resistance, capacitors in series combine to make a
smaller circuit capacitance. Actually, capacitors in series
combine the same way resistors in parallel combine
(using the same mathematical relationship given in
Experiment 4). For this experiment, 10mF and 100mF in
series perform the same as a single 9.1mF.
In terms of our water pipe analogy, you could think of
capacitors in series as adding together the stiffness of
their rubber diaphragms.
EXPERIMENT #8: Small Dominates Large - Capacitors in Series
Wiring Checklist:
o27-to-56
o55-to-43
o34-to-44-to-42
o45-to-3
o37-to-26-to-4
o35-to-36
Water Diagram
On/Off
Valve
Rubber
Diaphragms
Rocks
Pump
Schematic
Rocks Water
Meter